COURSE NAME:

Computer Organization & Architecture

UNIT CODE: SIT 115

INTRODUCTION AND RECAP
Definition
A computer may be defined as a machine which accepts data from an input device, performs arithmetic
and logical operations in accordance with a predefined program and finally transfers the data to an output
device.
It is an electronic device which accepts data and instructions and stores them temporarily in its memory
awaiting processing. It automatically executes or obeys the sets of issued instructions to produce
information from the input raw data. It is known to have speed and accuracy.
Diagrammatically, this definition can be viewed as below:-

Input Process Output

(Execution &
(Data & (Information
Storage)
Instructions) output)

It is an electronic device for it is a processing tool that makes work easier. However, note that the
computer works based on the sets of instructions issued and cannot do useful work without being
instructed to. I f garbage is fed into it, it produces the equivalent garbage (GIGO). The opposite is true.
The computer has internal memory which holds data and instructions awaiting processing. Processed data
(known as information) is also held in its memory before being communicated to the external
environment.
Characteristics of a computer
a) Speed
Computers operate as very high speeds usually quoted in fractions of seconds such as milli, micro
and nano seconds. These great speeds enable the computer to operate at unbelievably high speeds.
b) Accuracy and consistency – Given the same data and instructions the computer will produce the
same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
c) Ability to access and store large data volumes

Advantages of computers
Operates at high speeds, hence there may be cost savings in terms of staff, equipment etc
Very accurate
Computers can work on voluminous data items
Computers can provide useful information for management and for decision making
Computers help reduce paper work significantly
Large volumes of data can be conveniently stored, assessed and altered.

Disadvantages of computers
 They are costly
 May lead to reduction of employees within an organization
  Failed computer systems may take long time before being brought back to productivity, leading
to lost man-hours
 Contents of master files is stored in a non-human readable format therefore controlling the same
may be quite a difficult exercise
 It is increasingly becoming difficult and costly for companies to catch up with latest changes oin
technology

History of Computer Development

Computers as we know them today have been developed over the last 60 years.
A very long and slow evolution of mechanical calculating devices proceeded the development of
computers.
Development of the technologies used to fabricate the processors, memories and I/O units of
computers has been divided into four generations:-
 First generation (1945-55)
 Second generation (1955-65)
 Third Generation (1965-75)
 Fourth Generation (1975- present)
First Generation
 The key concept of stored program was introduced by John Von Neumann
 Programs and their data were located in the same memory as they are today.
 Assembly language was used to prepare programs and was translated into machine
language for execution.
 Basic arithmetic operations were performed in a few milliseconds using vacuum tube
technology to implement logic functions.
 Magnetic core memory and magnetic tape storage devices were also developed.
Second Generation
 The transistor was invented at AT&T laboratories in the late 1940s and quickly replaced
the vacuum tube.
 This basic technology shift marked the start of the second generation.
 Magnetic core memory and magnetic drum storage devices were more widely used in the
second generation.
 High level languages such as FORTRAN were developed.
 Compilers were developed to translate these high level language programs into
corresponding assembly language programs.
 Separate I/O processors were developed.
 IBM became a major computer manufacturer during this time.
Third Generation
 The ability to fabricate many transistors on a single silicon chip, called Integrated Circuit
(IC) technology was came into being.
 IC memories began to replace magnetic core memories
 Other developments included the introduction of microprogramming, parallelism and
pipelining.
 Operating system software allowed for efficient sharing of a computer system by several
user programs.
 Cache and virtual memories were developed.
 Cache memory makes the main memory appear faster than it really is, while virtual
memory makes it appear larger.
 System 360 main frame computers from IBM and the line of PDP mini computers from
Digital Equipment Corporation were dominant commercial products of the third
generation.
The Fourth Generation
 Tens of thousands of transistors could be placed on a single chip and the name Very
Large Scale Integration VLSI) was coined to describe this technology.
 VLSI technology allowed a complete processor to be fabricated on a single chip called a
microprocessor.
 Companies such as Intel, National Semiconductor, Motorola, Texas Instruments and
Advanced Micro Devices were the driving forces behind this technology.
 Organizational concepts such as concurrency, pipelining, caches and virtual memories
evolved to produce the high performance computing systems of today.
 Portable notebook computers, desktop PCs and work stations interconnected through
local area networks, WANs and the Internet were realized.
 Centralized computing on mainframes is now used primarily for business applications in
large companies.
TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Types of Computers

We can categorize computers in two ways: on the basis of data handling capabilities and size.

On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:

 Analogue Computer
 Digital Computer
 Hybrid Computer

1) Analogue Computer

Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is continuous data
that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can say that analogue computers
are used where we don't need exact values always such as speed, temperature, pressure and
current.

Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting
it into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in physical quantity and
generally render output as a reading on a dial or scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer
are examples of analogue computers.

Advantages of using analogue computers:

 It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and continuous
representation of all data within the rage of the analogue machine.
 In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help of
transducers for converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic form and vice versa.
 The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the analogue computer.
It provides insight into the problem and helps understand the errors and their effects.

Types of analogue computers:

 Slide Rules: It is one of the simplest types of mechanical analogue computers. It was
developed to perform basic mathematical calculations. It is made of two rods. To
perform the calculation, the hashed rod is slid to line up with the markings on another
rod.
 Differential Analysers: It was developed to perform differential calculations. It
performs integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to solve differential calculations.
 Castle Clock: It was invented by Al-Jarazi. It was able to save programming
instructions. Its height was around 11 feet and it was provided with the display of time,
the zodiac, and the solar and lunar orbits. This device also could allow users to set the
length of the day as per the current season.
  Electronic Analogue Computer: In this type of analogue computer, electrical signals
flow through capacitors and resistors to simulate physical phenomena. Here, the
mechanical interaction of components does not take place. The voltage of the electrical
signal generates the appropriate displays.

2) Digital Computer

Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It
accepts the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and processes it
with programs stored in its memory to produce the output. All modern computers like laptops,
desktops including smartphones that we use at home or office are digital computers.

Advantages of digital computers:

 It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily whenever you
need it.
 You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
 Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the program
without making any changes in hardware
 The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.
 It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
 It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.
 Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise, temperature,
humidity, and other properties of its components.

3) Hybrid Computer

Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like an analogue
computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process both continuous
and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and convert them into digital form before
processing. So, it is widely used in specialized applications where both analogue and digital data
is processed. For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of
fuel flow into quantity and price. Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific
applications.

Advantages of using hybrid computers:

 Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the analogue
subsystem.
 It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
 It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.
 It helps in the on-line data processing.
On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:

1) Supercomputer

Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge
amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has
thousands of interconnected processors.

Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. The first supercomputer was
developed by Roger Cray in 1976.

Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:

 It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security reasons.
 It produces excellent results in animations.
 It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
 It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions. It can run in
NOAA's system (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) that can execute
any type of simple and logical data.
 It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for their training.
 It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centres or cloud system. For
example, in insurance companies.
 It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock market and
bitcoin.
 It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate results in
brain injuries, strokes, etc.
 It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analysing data obtained from exploring
the solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
 It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and other
pollutants in the atmosphere.

2) Mainframe computer

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.

They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big
organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process high volume
of data.

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.

They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big
organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process a high
volume of data that requires integer operations such as indexing, comparisons, etc.
Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

 It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in the
banking sector.
 It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper installation.
 It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.
 It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors and
input/output terminals.
 There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe computers. If
any error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the performance.
 It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of information and
data.

Applications of mainframe computers:

 In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of their millions of patients in

order to contact them for treatment or related to their appointment, medicine updates or
disease updates.
 In the field of defence, it allows the defence departments to share a large amount of
sensitive information with other branches of defence.
 In the field of education, it helps big universities to store, manage and retrieve data
related to their courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees and affiliated schools
and colleges.
 In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and branches use
mainframe computers to handle and execute information related to their inventory
management, customer management, and huge transactions in a short duration.

3) Miniframe or Minicomputer

It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can support
4 to 200 users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes and departments for tasks
such as billing, accounting and inventory management. A minicomputer lies between the
mainframe and microcomputer as it is smaller than mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.

Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

 It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.

 It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
 It is very fast compared to its size.
 It remains charged for a long time.
 It does not require a controlled operational environment.
Applications of minicomputers:

A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary functions, which are as follows:

 Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly performs
two primary functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any abnormality occurs in
the process, it is detected by the minicomputer and necessary adjustments are made
accordingly.
 Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect, store and
share data. Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the records of their patients
and customers respectively.
 Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device in larger
systems by serving as a portal between a human operator and a central processor or
computer.

4) Workstation

Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications. It
has a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapters. It
generally performs a specific job with great expertise; accordingly, they are of different types
such as graphics workstation, music workstation and engineering design workstation.

Characteristics of workstation computer:

 It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for business or

professional use.
 It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a personal
computer.
 It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and editing.

Any computer that has the following five features, can be termed as a workstation or can be used
as a workstation.

 Multiple Processor Cores: It has more processor cores than simple laptops or
computers.
 ECC RAM: It is provided with Error-correcting code memory that can fix memory
errors before they affect the system's performance.
 RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It refers to multiple internal hard
drives to store or process data. RAID can be of different types, for example, there can be
multiple drives to process data or mirrored drives where if one drive does not work than
other starts functioning.
 SSD: It is better than conventional hard-disk drives. It does not have moving parts, so the
chances of physical failure are very less.
 Optimized, Higher end GPU: It reduces the load on CPU. E.g., CPU has to do less work
while processing the screen output.
5) Microcomputer

Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose computer that is

designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory, storage
area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are examples of
microcomputers. They are suitable for personal work that may be making an assignment,
watching a movie, or at office for office work.

Characteristics of a microcomputer:

 It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.

 A limited number of software can be used.
 It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at a time.
 It is less expansive and easy to use.
 It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.
 Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.
 It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching videos, etc.