BASIC OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS

 To perform a given task, the appropriate program consisting of a list of instructions is

stored in the memory.
 Individual instructions are brought from the memory in to the processor, which executes
the specified operations.
 Data to be used as operands are also stored in the memory.
Transfers between the memory and processor are started by sending the address of the memory
location to be accessed to the memory unit and issuing the appropriate signals.
The data is then transferred to or from the memory.
The two registers that facilitate communication with the memory are:
 Memory Address Register (MAR)
 Memory Data Register (MDR)
MAR holds the address of the location to be accessed.
MDR contains the data to be written into or read out of the address location.

Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and
instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the CPU are
often termed as Processor registers.

These are:-

a) Instruction Register (IR) – Holds the instruction that is currently being executed. Its
output is available to the control circuitry which generates the timing signals that control
the various processing elements involved in the executing of the instruction.
b) Program Counter – Keeps track of the execution of programs. It contains the memory
address of the next instruction to be fetched and executed.
During execution of the instruction the contents of the PC are updated to correspond to
the address of the next instruction to be executed.
c) n general purpose registers : Ro ….Rn-1
During the execution of an instruction the contents of the PC are updated to correspond to the
address of the next instruction to be executed.
The figure below shows the connection between the memory and processor.
Operating steps
Programs reside in the memory after being fed into the computer through the input units.
i. Execution of a program starts when the PC is set to point to the first instruction of the
program.
ii. The contents of the PC are transferred to MAR and read. Control signal is sent to the
memory.
iii. After the time required to access the memory elapses, the address word (first instruction
of the program) is read out of the memory and loaded in MDR.
iv. The contents of MDR are transferred to the IR and the instruction is ready to be decoded
and executed.
v. If the instruction involves an operation to be performed by the ALU, it is necessary to
obtain the operands. If an operand resides in memory it has to be fetched by sending its
address to the MAR and initiating the read cycle.
vi. When the operand has been read from the memory into MDR, it is transferred from MDR
to ALU.
vii. After one or more operands are fetched in this way, the ALU can perform the desired
operation.
viii. If the result of this operation is to be stored in memory, then the result is send to MDR
and address where to store is sent to MAR and a write cycle is initiated.
 ix. At some point during the execution of the current instruction, the contents of the PC are
incremented so that the PC points to the next instruction to be executed.
Thus as soon as the execution of the current instruction is completed, a new instruction fetch
cycle may be started.
The normal execution of the current program can be interrupted using an interrupt signal.
 An interrupt is a request from an I/O device for service by the processor. The processor
provides the requested service by executing an appropriate Interrupt Service Routine
(ISR). Since such diversions alter the internal state of the processor, its state may be
saved in memory locations before servicing the interrupt. Normally the contents of the
PC, general shift registers and some control information are stored in memory.

 When the service routine is completed the state of the processor is restored so that the
interrupted program can continue.

Other types of registers

Following is the list of some of the most common registers used in a basic computer:
Register Symbol Function

Data register DR Holds memory operand

Address register AR Holds address for the memory

Accumulator AC Processor register

Instruction register IR Holds instruction code

Temporary register TR Holds temporary data

Input register INPR Carries input character

Output register OUTR Carries output character

MAR (Memory Address This register holds the memory location of the data that needs to
Register) be accessed.

This register holds the data that is being transferred to or from

MDR (Memory Data Register)
memory.

AC (Accumulator) This register holds the intermediate arithmetic and logic results.

This register contains the address of the next instruction to be

PC (Program Counter)
executed.
CIR (Current Instruction
This register contains the current instruction during processing.
Register)

Examples of memory executions

i) ADD LOCA, Ro (LOCA is the source while Ro is the destination)
This instruction adds the content present in memory location LOCA with Ro and
places the result in Ro.
Ro  Ro + (LOCA)
ii) LOAD LOCA, R1
This means transfer the data present in memory location LOCA to the register R 1.

iii) ADD R1, Ro

Adds the contents of R1 with Ro and places the result into Ro.
The transfer between the memory and the processor are started by sending the address of
the memory location to be accessed to the memory unit and issuing the appropriate
control signals.

Store Program Control Concept

The term Stored Program Control Concept refers to the storage of instructions in computer
memory to enable it to perform a variety of tasks in sequence or intermittently.

Von-Neumann proposed his computer architecture design in 1945 which was later known as
Von-Neumann Architecture. It consisted of a Control Unit, Arithmetic, and Logical Memory
Unit (ALU), Registers and Inputs/Outputs.

Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program computer concept, where instruction
data and program data are stored in the same memory. This design is still used in most computers
produced today.

A Von Neumann-based computer:

 Uses a single processor

 Uses one memory for both instructions and data.
 Executes programs following the fetch-decode-execute cycle
The Von Neumann Model

Computer architecture and organization

Computer Architecture

The architecture of a computer system can be considered as a catalogue of tools or attributes that
are visible to the user such as instruction sets, number of bits used for data, addressing
techniques.

Computer Architecture therefore refers to those attributes of a system that have a direct impact
on the logical execution of a program such as:-
 The instruction set
 The number of bits used to represent various data types
 I/O mechanisms
 Memory addressing techniques

Computer Organization
This defines the way system is structured so that all those catalogued tools can be used.
Computer Organization thus refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize
the architectural specifications. Examples are things that are transparent to the programme
including:
 Control signals
 Interfaces between computer and peripherals
  The memory technology being used
The significant components of Computer organization are ALU, CPU, memory and memory
organization.

Computer Architecture vs Computer Organization

Computer Architecture Computer Organization

Computer Architecture is concerned with the way Computer Organization is concerned with the
hardware components are connected together to form structure and behaviour of a computer system as
a computer system. seen by the user.

It acts as the interface between hardware and It deals with the components of a connection in a
software. system.

Computer Organization tells us how exactly all the

Computer Architecture helps us to understand the
units in the system are arranged and
functionalities of a system.
interconnected.

A programmer can view architecture in terms of Whereas Organization expresses the realization of
instructions, addressing modes and registers. architecture.

While designing a computer system architecture is An organization is done on the basis of

considered first. architecture.

Computer Architecture deals with high-level design Computer Organization deals with low-level
issues. design issues.

Architecture involves Logic (Instruction sets, Organization involves Physical Components

Addressing modes, Data types, Cache optimization) (Circuit design, Adders, Signals, Peripherals)