Example 16.

4: Combining the parallel and perpendicular electric fields into one problem
Acceleration Thru a Projectile Motion
Potential Difference Inertia of Charge Inertia

– + Q2
+ + + + + + + + + C2 =
V2
– E1 +
E2
y2
– +
d2
–
+
–
+ V2
E2 =
–
+
– – – – – – – – – d2

d1 x2

V1 1 2 1 2
E1 = qV = mv x = vo t y= at ∑ F = FE
d1 2 2
ma = qE
Q1
C1 = Fig 16.4
V1

In this scenario
An electron is accelerated through a potential difference by the plates to the left. Remember when any field acts parallel to
an object it will either accelerate or decelerate the mass or charge. The field is always assumed to be uniform between the
plates (same strength everywhere, and it is assumed not to extend beyond the plates). Upon exiting the first set of plates the
electron moves at constant velocity due to its inertia. Then it enters a second set of plates. This time the field is
perpendicular. Fields that are perpendicular to motion cause either projectile motion or circular motion depending on
whether the field is linear or radial. The electron above experience projectile motion due to the linear field, although it
appears upside down compared to a gravity problem. The electron continues in a straight path due to its inertia once it leaves
the plates.

Given: The electric field E1 of the first plates and the distance between them d, or the charge on the plates Q1 and the
capictance of the plates C1.
The mass me and charge qe of an electron accelerated by the plates.
The length x2 of the second set of plates, the vertical displacement y2 of the electron, d2 the distance between
the plates.
Find: The electric field E2 and potential difference V2 of the second set of plates.
The speed vf of the electron leaving the second set of plates.
Be able to draw the path of the electron from beginning to end.
Don’t Confuse small v for velocity and capital V for voltage.

Try this on for size: What is E2 in terms of E1 and any of the other above variables and constants that are relevant?
4 E1d 2 y2
E2 = 2
x2

Anything is possible: The firing: Plates can be reversed to fire a proton. Plate charge may not be marked, but may be a
question. The electric field will not be drawn, instead they will require you to draw the field or to state its direction
according to the coordinate axis, Etc. The deflection: Plates can be reversed and/or a proton could be used. Plate
charge may not be marked, but may be a question. The electric field will not be drawn, instead they will require you to
draw the field or to state its direction according to the coordinate axis, Etc.
Revised 8/29/06 61 © R H Jansen
Revised 8/29/06 62 © R H Jansen
 3−17 Capacitance
Capacitors or Charged Plates: Large Q. Capacitors are a way to store electrical charge and
energy. A voltage (potential difference) is needed to create the static electric build up on the plates. The
plates can be discharged, releasing energy, by providing a path for the electrons to flow between the plates.
Capacitance: C, is the capacity of the capacitor to hold charge. Think of batteries as electrical pumps,
and voltage as electrical pressure that makes it all happen. C = ε 0 A . Increasing the area increases the space
d Fig 17.1
for the charges on each plate. Since each plate holds like charges, that repel each other, increasing the area
creates more room for the charges and lowers electrostatic repulsion. If the distance between the plates is lowered then the
positive charge on one plate come closer to the negative on the other. The plates attract each other. To keep charges from
jumping from one plate to the other an insulating is placed between the plates. For the AP Physics B class the insulating
substance will be a vacuum.

Dielectrics: The real formula for capacitance is C = κε 0 A . ε0 is the permittivity of free space, and κ is the dielectric
d
constant. The dielectric constant varies from substance to substance. κ = 1 for a vacuum, resulting in the above equation.
Q is the capacitance C in terms of the charge stored Q and the batteries potential (pressure) V to pump charges onto
C=
V
the plates. Since the charges would prefer to stay evenly distributed and neutral on both plates work must be done to separate
the charges. Electrons, which are loosely bound by their atoms, are made to move from one plate to the other, by the
potential V. Remember electrons move in a direction that is opposite that of the electric field. They fall upward toward the
positive plate and gain potential energy. U c = 1 QV = 1 CV 2 During this process there is a change in energy, or work.
2 2
Disconnect the battery and you have stored the charges on the plates. Connect a wire between them and the charge can flow.
The quantity of energy that was stored is released and can be used to do an equal quantity of work. You can think of
electricity as water. If you pump water up to a water tower it has high potential energy. If you turn off the pump it will flow
back to the ground. A capacitor is an electrical water tower where charge is stored temporarily until it is needed. So if the
electrical circuit needs to flush all of its toilets simultaneously the capacitor is allowed to discharge. It is then refilled for the
next big flush. Q is the water pumped into the tower. V is the pumps pressure. Why is U E = qV while U c = 1 QV ?
2
Remember Q is the charge of the plates themselves. The first electron moved onto the plate does so easily. But the second
is repelled by the first, and the third by the first two. It becomes harder to put more electrons on the plate since repulsion
becomes higher with each electron. The positive plate becomes more positive pulling the electrons back as well. The rate of
charges moved starts out high and declines to zero. Average the high rate initially with zero at the end and you get half of the
initial rate. If you pump water up a water tower it goes fast at first. But, the weight of the water filling the tower begins to
make it harder to pump, until the force of the water in the tower pushing down equals the force of the pump pushing water
up. Average the fast pumping at the start with zero pumping at the end, and you get half.
Circuits containing Capacitors: Several capacitors in series or parallel, or in combination can add up to act like one
capacitor in a similar manner as resistors do. The rules for capacitors in circuits are opposite the rules for resistors (presented
later). However, similar problem solving techniques apply. 1 = 1
∑ CP = ∑ Ci
Cs i Ci i

Example 17.1: Equivalent Capacitance

What is the equivalent capacitance of two 50 µC connected in series, Fig 17.2a? 50 µF 50 µF
1 1 1 2 50µ F
1
=∑
1 = + = Cs = = 25µ F Fig 17.2a
Cs i Ci C s 50µ F 50µ F 50µ F 2
Placing capacitors in series creates less capacitance. Sometimes you need a specific amount of
capacitance, but can’t locate a capacitor with the exact needed value. The battery has a harder time 50 µF
pumping the two capacitors up, in this configuration.
What is the equivalent capacitance of two 50 µC connected in parallel, Fig 17.2b? 50 µF
CP = ∑ Ci CP = 50 µ F + 50 µ F = 100 µ F Fig 17.2b
i

Placing capacitors in parallel is the same as increasing the area of the plates and therefore increases the capacity of the new
combined capacitor

Revised 8/29/06 63 © R H Jansen

Revised 8/29/06 64 © R H Jansen
 3−18 Current, Resistance, and DC Circuits
Current: The flow of electricity. Current I is considered positive (due to old convention). We now know that the
electrons flow, but think of current as positive. To talk about actual electron flow we must say electron current or negative
current. Positive current flow follows the direction of the electric field, so negative flow is counter to the electric field.
∆Q It’s a rate (divided by time). But, it is unlike velocity where we measure the distance the car went. Instead we
I=
∆t
stand still and count how many charges, Q (large amount of charged particles), go by in an amount of time (1 second).
Resistance: When water flows down a stream it runs into resistance, such as rocks and
sand, etc. When current flows in a length of wire, Fig 18.1, internal properties of the wire
slows the current. Resistance is like friction countering the forward progress of the Fig 18.1
electrons. Conductors slow the current very little, while insulators have lots of resistance,
and slow it drastically. All appliances, and even the sources of electricity like batteries have resistance. There are also actual
resistors built into circuits to help control electrical flow to exact quantities in various parts of the circuit.
ρA Resistance is a function of resistivity, ρ , wire length, A , and cross sectional area. Resistivity, ρ , is like the
R=
Area
coefficient of friction. It is derived by experimentation. Different materials have different natural resistances. Gold has very
low resistance, while copper is not quite as good, but it is cheaper. So let’s worry about length and cross section of wire.
Make length small and area big, so the answer is d. The longer the wire the more resistance it has. And resistance is like
friction. What type of energy does some of the KE turn into when an object is slowed by friction? Heat. What kind of
energy is produced when charges are slowed down by resistance? Heat. What do you feel when you touch an electrical
component, like a stereo? It gets hot. Heat loss is disadvantageous. You’re losing valuable energy, wasting money on you
electrical bill, and increasing entropy. Hot wires also have more resistance. Minimizing resistance is advantageous. But,
sometimes you need to create resistance if you have components that can only handle certain amounts of power, energy,
voltage, etc. In addition wires themselves have like resistors. One goal in circuit design is to shorten the wires between
components to minimize power loss and heat. How much energy is lost in the transmission wires from Hoover Dam?
Important equations for circuits.
W V2
V = IR P = IV P= P = I 2 R (not given) P= (not given)
t R
DC Current: Direct Current is created in batteries, by an electrochemical reaction. These reactions follow entropy and
run in one direction producing one way current that is also even in the amount that is produced. The reaction can be reversed,
as entropy can, if you put more energy into recharging the battery than you will recover from the battery when it is used.
Direct Current, means it travels in one direction only following the electric field lines. The battery pumps charges by
creating a potential difference (voltage) between the ends of the circuit. The positive terminal (positive plate) is a region of
high potential energy. At the other end of the circuit (wires and components) is a negative terminal (negative plate) that is a
region of low potential energy. In a 12 V battery the positive plate is the 12 V plate, while the negative plate is the 0 V plate.
Positive current (positive charge) wants to fall toward the ground (negative plate) through the potential difference. This is the
direction of the electric field, which is the direction positive charge moves. (Just remember the electrons really flow, so it’s
all backwards. But, mathematically you get the same numbers).
AC Current: This current comes from generators and is best understood when looking at electromagnetic induction. For
now AC current is a current that decelerates to a stop and then accelerates in the opposite direction for a while, then it repeats
this process over and over again. The charges move back and forth at 60 Hz (60 times a second) in US circuits. Not only
does direction change, but so does the amount of current. The slowing, stopping, and speeding up creates a sinusoidal current
over time.
Skier Analogy: A ski lift (battery or generator) elevates skiers (charge) from the lodge (negative plate, 0 V) to the top of
12 V Mountain (positive plate, 12 V) raising both they’re potential (V = Ed) and potential energy (UE = qV). The skiers
(charge) must follow the gravitational field (electric field) back to the lodge (negative plate, 0 V) through the ski resort
(circuit). There are several possible runs (wires) for the skiers (charge) to use. Because the skiers (charge) are losing
potential energy as they fall, and because energy must be conserved, the potential energy must be turning into another form
of energy. It is turning into the kinetic energy of the skiers (charge). Then the skiers (charge) run through gates (appliances,
light bulbs, etc.) and they transfer kinetic energy to the gates doing useful work (browning toast, lighting up your room).
Unfortunately, the skiers also loose some energy in the gates (appliance, lamp, etc.) to friction (resistance), which creates
heat. Also the mountain is covered with moguls (resistors) put on the slopes to purposely slow the skiers (current). As they
ski (flow) down the mountain they loose potential energy. They use up all of their potential (height) and potential energy
going through gates (appliances, lights, etc.) and moguls (resistors). The skiers (charge) arrive at the lodge with no energy
and no potential. They are sent through the process until the switch is opened (resort is closed).

Revised 8/29/06 65 © R H Jansen