The Computer

Introduction The term "computer" originally referred to a person who performed calculations, dating
back to 1613. By the late 19th century, it evolved to denote a machine designed for computations. A
computer is now defined as a programmable electronic device that accepts input, processes it with
instructions, and produces output. The name derives from the Latin word "computare," meaning "to
calculate." Computing refers to the study and use of computers.

Computer Science Specializations

1. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning

o Function: Develops systems that mimic intelligent behavior.

o Roles: AI Engineer, Data Scientist.

o Examples: Creating recommendation systems, voice assistants.

2. Data Science and Analytics

o Function: Extracts insights from large datasets.

o Roles: Data Analyst, Business Intelligence Analyst.

o Examples: Analyzing customer data to improve services.

3. Software Engineering and Development

o Function: Designs and maintains software applications.

o Roles: Software Engineer, Frontend Developer.

o Examples: Developing mobile apps or web platforms.

4. Computer Networks and Security

o Function: Manages networks and secures data transmission.

o Roles: Network Engineer, Security Analyst.

o Examples: Setting up firewalls, monitoring network traffic.

5. Database Systems

o Function: Manages databases for data storage and retrieval.

o Roles: Database Administrator, Data Architect.

o Examples: Designing database schemas for applications.

6. Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)

o Function: Designs user-friendly interfaces.

o Roles: UX Designer, UI Developer.

o Examples: Creating intuitive app interfaces.

7. Computer Graphics and Visualization

o Function: Develops visual representations and simulations.

o Roles: Graphics Programmer, Game Developer.

o Examples: Designing video game graphics or scientific visualizations.

8. Information Systems and Management

o Function: Manages information systems for business processes.

o Roles: IT Manager, Systems Analyst.

o Examples: Implementing ERP systems in organizations.

9. Algorithms and Data Structures

o Function: Designs efficient algorithms for problem-solving.

o Roles: Algorithm Engineer, Researcher.

o Examples: Creating sorting algorithms for data processing.

10. Computer Vision and Image Processing

o Function: Analyzes and processes visual data.

o Roles: Computer Vision Engineer, Image Processing Specialist.

o Examples: Developing facial recognition systems.

11. Natural Language Processing (NLP)

o Function: Understands and processes human language.

o Roles: NLP Engineer, Chatbot Developer.

o Examples: Building virtual assistants and translation systems.

12. Cybersecurity and Cryptography

o Function: Protects data and information systems.

o Roles: Cybersecurity Analyst, Cryptographer.

o Examples: Developing encryption protocols.

13. Robotics and Automation

o Function: Designs and programs robotic systems.

o Roles: Robotics Engineer, Automation Specialist.

o Examples: Creating robots for manufacturing processes.

14. Bioinformatics

o Function: Applies computing to biological research.

o Roles: Bioinformatics Scientist, Computational Biologist.

 o Examples: Analyzing genomic data for medical research.

Evolution of Computers

1. Manual Counting Devices: The Abacus (3000 BCE)

o Example: Used in ancient civilizations for basic arithmetic.

2. Mechanical Calculators

o Pascaline (1642):

 Example: Blaise Pascal's calculator for addition and subtraction.

o Stepped Reckoner (1694):

 Example: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's machine capable of addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division.

3. Early Computers

o Difference Engine (1822):

 Example: Designed by Charles Babbage for calculating polynomial functions.

o Analytical Engine (1837):

 Example: Babbage's design for a programmable computer; Ada Lovelace

wrote the first algorithm for it.

4. Electromechanical Machines

o Tabulator (1890):

 Example: Herman Hollerith's device for automating census data processing,

leading to IBM.

5. Modern Electronic Computers

o ENIAC (1945):

 Example: The first high-speed electronic digital computer, used for military
calculations.

Generations of Computers

1. First Generation (1942-1955):

o Example: UNIVAC, EDVAC, and IBM-701, known for using vacuum tubes and being
very large.

2. Second Generation (1955-1964):

o Example: IBM 1401 and CDC 3600, which utilized transistors for improved
performance.

3. Third Generation (1960s-1970s):

 o Example: IBM 360 and VAX-750, known for using integrated circuits (ICs) and
advanced operating systems.

4. Fourth Generation (1975-1990):

o Example: IBM PC and Apple Macintosh, recognized for using microprocessors and
becoming widely accessible.

5. Fifth Generation (1991-Present):

o Example: AI systems and quantum computers, focusing on artificial intelligence and

advanced processing capabilities.

Characteristics of Computers

1. Speed: Perform operations in milliseconds.

2. Accuracy: High precision; relies on GIGO (Garbage In, Garbage Out).

3. Automation: Execute tasks automatically without human intervention.

Classification of Computers

By Size

1. Supercomputers

o Characteristics: Fastest, largest, extremely powerful, and expensive (trillions of

operations/second).

o Examples: CDC 6600, Fugaku, Aurora.

2. Mainframe Computers

o Characteristics: Large, powerful, multi-user, designed for extensive data processing.

o Examples: IBM 360, ICL 39 Series.

3. Mini-Computers

o Characteristics: Medium-sized, multi-user, more powerful than personal computers,

suitable for departmental operations.

o Examples: IBM AS/400e.

4. Micro-Computers

o Characteristics: Small, affordable, energy-efficient, designed for personal use.

o Examples: Desktops, laptops, and PDAs.

By Technology

1. Analog Computers

o Characteristics: Process continuous data directly from measuring devices.

 o Examples: Speedometers, thermometers.

2. Digital Computers

o Characteristics: High-speed, use binary data for processing.

o Examples: Laptops, desktops, smartphones.

3. Hybrid Computers

o Characteristics: Combine analog and digital features, process both continuous and
discrete data.

o Examples: Petrol pumps, medical equipment.

By Purpose

1. General Purpose Computers

o Characteristics: Capable of performing a wide range of tasks under program control.

o Examples: Personal computers, servers.

2. Special Purpose Computers

o Characteristics: Designed for specific tasks.

o Examples: ATMs, gaming consoles, robotic vacuum cleaners

Functions of the Computer

A digital computer operates through these main functions:

1. Input: Data and programs are entered via input devices (e.g., keyboard, mouse).

2. Storage: Data and instructions are saved for quick access and processing.

3. Processing: The CPU performs calculations on the data based on stored instructions.

4. Output: Processed data is produced and presented in a human-readable format.

5. Control: The control unit manages and coordinates all operations.

Components of the Computer System

The computer system comprises three main components:

1. Hardware: Physical parts, including:

o Input Devices: (e.g., keyboard, mouse)

o Output Devices: (e.g., monitor, printer)

2. Software: Programs that include:

o System Software: Operating systems

o Application Software: Specific task programs

 3. Humanware: The users who interact with the computer.

Components of the Computer System - Hardware: Memory

A computer needs memory to store data and instructions for processing tasks. Memory can be
categorized as volatile (temporary) or non-volatile (permanent). It is divided into two main types:
primary memory and secondary memory.

A. Primary Memory

Primary memory is directly accessible by the CPU and includes:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile memory that stores data temporarily for active
processes.

2. ROM (Read-Only Memory): Non-volatile memory that holds essential startup instructions,
called "bootstrap code." These instructions are set by the manufacturer and cannot be
altered by the user.

o Types of ROM:

 MROM (Masked ROM): Pre-programmed at manufacturing.

 PROM (Programmable ROM): Blank at purchase, user-programmable, but

data cannot be erased.

 EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): Can be erased using UV light and

reprogrammed.

 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM): Can be electrically

erased and reprogrammed, allowing for selective erasure.

3. Cache Memory: A high-speed memory that stores frequently accessed data for quicker CPU
access, positioned between the CPU and RAM. It enhances processing speed and efficiency.

o Types of Cache Memory:

 L1 Cache: Primary cache within the CPU, very fast (2KB to 64KB).

 L2 Cache: Secondary cache, larger than L1 (64KB to 2MB), located on the

CPU or between the CPU and RAM.

 L3 Cache: Shared among CPU cores, larger but slower than L1 and L2 (1MB
to 8MB).

 L4 Cache: External memory cache, slower than other caches, but data
remains permanently stored (128MB to 1GB)

Components of the Computer System - Hardware: Memory

Virtual Memory

Virtual memory uses part of secondary storage (like a hard disk) to extend RAM capacity, allowing
larger applications to run and improving multitasking by moving unused data from RAM.

Functions:

 Expands physical memory using disk space.

  Enhances memory protection.

A. Primary Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM): This temporary and volatile memory stores data and instructions
during operation. It is faster than other memory types.

Types of RAM:

1. SRAM (Static RAM):

o Fast and expensive; retains data while powered.

o Used mainly as cache.

2. DRAM (Dynamic RAM):

o Common and cheaper, but requires constant refreshing.

B. Secondary Memory (Auxiliary Storage)

Not directly accessed by the CPU; data must be loaded into RAM first. It offers greater capacity but is
slower.

Types of Secondary Memory:

1. Magnetic Storage:

o Uses magnetic materials (e.g., hard drives).

2. Solid-State Storage:

o Uses silicon chips; faster and more reliable (e.g., SSDs).

3. Optical Storage:

o Uses laser technology (e.g., CDs, DVDs).

Memory Measurement Units

Memory is measured in:

 Bit: Smallest unit (0 or 1).

 Nibble: Four bits.

 Byte: Eight bits.

 Word: Typically 16, 32, or 64 bits.

Common conversions:

 8 bits = 1 byte

 1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte (KB)

 1024 KB = 1 megabyte (MB)

 1024 MB = 1 gigabyte (GB)

 1024 GB = 1 terabyte (TB)

Components of the Computer System - Hardware: CPU

CPU Overview

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is essential for all computers and consists of three main parts:

1. Control Unit (CU)

2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

3. Memory Unit

Intel is a leading manufacturer of microprocessors for IBM-compatible computers.

Control Unit (CU)

The Control Unit manages data flow and ensures instructions are executed correctly.

Key Functions:

 Directs data transfer between devices, memory, and the ALU.

 Coordinates CPU operations.

Operations:

1. Fetch: Retrieves instructions from memory.

2. Decode: Breaks instructions into components.

3. Execute: Performs operations using the ALU.

4. Store: Updates results in registers.

5. Repeat: Continues for the next instruction.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The ALU performs:

 Arithmetic Operations: Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

 Logical Operations: Comparisons and logical evaluations.

Memory Unit

The Memory Unit stores data and intermediate results until processing is complete, then sends
results to output devices.
Motherboard

The motherboard connects components like the CPU and RAM. It includes:

 Buses for data transfer.

 BIOS for hardware-software interaction.

 A CMOS battery for storing settings.

Computer Software

Definition: Software consists of programs that enable computers to perform tasks. It includes two
main categories:

1. System Software

Manages hardware and resources, including the Operating System (OS), which handles:

 Process Management: Manages running programs.

 Memory Management: Allocates memory.

 File Management: Organizes files.

 Device Management: Controls hardware.

 Security Management: Protects data.

 User Interface: Facilitates user interaction.

2. Application Software

Allows users to perform specific tasks (e.g., word processing, gaming).

Other Software Components

 Device Drivers: Enable hardware communication with the OS.

 Firmware: Permanent software stored in ROM for hardware functionality.

 Programming Language Translators: Convert high-level code into machine code.

 Utility Software: Optimizes and maintains system performance (e.g., antivirus).

Fundamentals of Computer Software: Application Software

Definition
Application software includes programs used by general users to perform specific tasks based on
their needs. Unlike system software, it is not essential for running the computer, but it makes it more
functional and useful.
Types of Application Software

1. Word Processing

o Used for creating, editing, and formatting text documents.

o Examples: Microsoft Word, Google Docs, OpenOffice Writer.

2. Spreadsheet

o Handles data in tables and performs calculations with formulas.

o Examples: Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3.

3. Presentation Software

o Creates visual aids for presentations to communicate ideas.

o Examples: Microsoft PowerPoint, Google Slides.

4. Graphics Editing

o Allows editing of digital images and graphics.

o Examples: Adobe Photoshop, CorelDRAW.

5. Software Suites

o Bundles of multiple applications, often including word processing, spreadsheets, and

presentations.

o Examples: Microsoft Office, Google Workspace.

6. Desktop Publishing

o Used for creating layouts combining text and graphics, suitable for publications.

o Examples: Adobe InDesign, MS Publisher.

7. Database Software

o Manages databases, allowing users to create, modify, and retrieve data.

o Examples: Oracle, MySQL, MS Access.

8. Multimedia Software

o Plays and edits audio and video files, supports multimedia tasks.

o Examples: VLC Media Player, Adobe Premiere.

9. Web Browsers

o Accesses and displays information on the internet.

o Examples: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Safari.

10. Email Software

o Manages and transmits electronic messages over networks.

o Examples: Microsoft Outlook, Gmail.