CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Telecommunications encompass a diverse array of technologies and systems

designed to transmit, receive, and process data in various forms—whether voice, video,
or digital signals. From traditional landline networks to cutting-edge mobile broadband
and satellite communications, telecommunications infrastructure forms the backbone
of our interconnected society. At its essence, telecommunications enable individuals,
businesses, and governments to communicate instantaneously and reliably,
transcending geographical barriers and fostering on a global scale. Through constant
innovation and investment, telecommunications continue to evolve, offering faster
speeds, greater bandwidth, and enhanced capabilities to meet the growing demands of
a digital world.

Figure 1.1 Telecommunication Network System

Radio network optimization and planning play a crucial role in creating and
maintaining robust wireless networks that meet the ever-growing demands of users and
applications. Radio network optimization involves fine-tuning network parameters to
enhance performance, coverage, and capacity. It encompasses optimizing antenna
configurations, managing interference, and balancing resources to ensure optimal

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quality of service. By leveraging advanced algorithms and real-time data analytics,
engineers continuously refine network efficiency to deliver superior user experiences.

1.1 Aim and Objectives

The aim is to develop comprehensive radio optimization and planning
framework specifically tailored for addressing challenges in areas with poor network
connection, ultimately aiming to enhance network performance and improve user
experience.
The objectives are as follow:
• To conduct a thorough analysis of existing network infrastructure
• To evaluate the effectiveness of current optimization techniques
• To develop novel algorithms for resource allocation
• To design systematic planning and deployment strategies

• To clarify the pros and cons of deploying each technology which can be helpful
for telecom companies to review their options and decisions

1.2 Field Background

Telecommunications engineering field is a field of non-stopping advancements
especially in term of cellular communications. These advancements appear as a result
of the new requirements that urge for a next generation technology every time. starting
from the voice-only systems to today’s intelligent communication systems. At each
stage there were new requirements that could not be achieved using the current
technology available back then. This led to an enormous effort looking for advanced
technologies that can match the expectations of the users. Since the beginning of the
last decade of 2010s until the current year of 2022, there were two theologies developed
in a rapid pace. These technologies are LTE and 5G NR with many releases of them.
They made an enormous change in telecommunications field in term of performance
and supported applications. Cellular planning and optimization of mobile
heterogeneous networks has been a topic of study for several decades with a diversity
of resources, such as analytical formulations and simulation software being employed
to characterize different scenarios with the aim of improving system capacity.
Furthermore, the world has now witnessed the birth of the first commercial 5G New
Radio networks with a technology that was developed to ensure the delivery of much

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higher data rates with comparably lower levels of latency. In the challenging scenarios
of 4G and beyond, Carrier Aggregation has been proposed as a resource to allow
enhancements in coverage and capacity. Another key element to ensure the success of
4G and 5G networks is the deployment of Small Cells to offload Macro cells.

1.3 Scope of Thesis

Radio network optimization and planning with Atoll software is as follow:
• Define the key performance indicators (KPIs) used in radio network
optimization, such as coverage, capacity, throughput, latency, and
reliability.
• Explore various optimization algorithms and methodologies used in radio
network planning, such as coverage optimization, frequency planning,
antenna placement optimization, and interference management.
• Discuss the role of simulation tools and modeling techniques (e.g.,
propagation models, traffic models) in evaluating network performance and
planning.
• Analyze different deployment strategies for radio networks, including
indoor versus outdoor deployments, urban versus rural environments, and
strategies for improving coverage in challenging terrain.
• Conduct a cost-benefit analysis of different optimization strategies,
considering factors such as initial deployment costs, operational costs, and
the long-term benefits of improved network performance.
• Provide real-world case studies or examples where radio network
optimization strategies have been successfully applied.
1.4 Procedure of Thesis
This graduation thesis is implemented according to the following programs:
• Studying the theory of telecommunication system.
• Studying radio propagation models (e.g., Okumura-Hata, COST 231-Hata)
to predict signal propagation characteristics based on geographical and
environmental factors (e.g., terrain, building structures).
• Performing frequency planning to optimize frequency assignments,
minimize interference, and maximize spectral efficiency.
• Applying the Atoll and radio network system.

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1.5 Outline of Thesis
Radio frequency optimization and planning using Atoll software is analyzed
according to the following chapter plans.
Chapter 1 describes introduction, objectives of the thesis, field background, and
overview of the system.
Chapter 2 discusses about theory background in detail. It explains about the
telecommunication infrastructure. The literature covers the definition, architecture,
capabilities, and enabling technologies for radio frequency environment.
Chapter 3 covers the methodology used to design and simulate the Atoll radio
network planning software.
Chapter 4 mentions radio frequency optimization and planning in poor network
connection areas with test and results.
Chapter 5 concludes the articles with advantages and disadvantages, limitations
of this system.

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 CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

This chapter presents the literature review and related works. The literature
review includes; the concept of cellular communications and its aspects, LTE
technology and its aspects, and the concept of cellular planning and optimization. In
addition, it presents an overview of a number of related works.

2.1 Introduction to Literature Review

In the first paper, Abdul Basit, Syed, in their 2021 Master Thesis from Helsinki
University of Technology, delves into the dimensioning of LTE networks, emphasizing
models and tools for coverage and capacity estimation. Basit's work contributes
significantly to understanding the intricacies of Long Term Evolution (LTE) radio
interfaces, providing valuable insights into network planning and optimization.
In the second paper, Md. Ariful Alam's 2013 degree project from Linnaeus
University, Sweden, titled "Mobile Network Planning and KPI Improvement," explores
strategies for enhancing Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) in mobile network
planning. Alam's research sheds light on the importance of efficient network planning
methodologies and their impact on overall network performance and user experience.
In the third paper, Marcellinus Iheanyi Eheduru, in their 2013 Master Thesis
from the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, focuses on indoor radio measurement
and planning for UMTS/HSPDA networks, with an emphasis on antenna deployment.
Eheduru's work addresses the challenges associated with indoor coverage and
highlights the significance of antenna configurations in improving network
performance in indoor environments.

2.2 Mobile Communications Principle

Each mobile uses a separate, temporary radio channel to talk to the cell site.
The cell site talks to many mobiles at once, using one channel per mobile. Channels
use a pair of frequencies for communication—one frequency, the forward link, for
transmitting from the cell site, and one frequency, the reverse link, for the cell site to

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receive calls from the users. Radio energy dissipates over distance, so mobiles must
stay near the base station to maintain communications. The basic structure of mobile
networks include telephone systems and radio services. Where mobile radio service
operates in a closed network and has no access to the telephone system, mobile
telephone service allows interconnection to the telephone network.

Figure 2.1 Basic Mobile Telephone Service

2.2.1 Early Mobile Telephone System Architecture

Traditional mobile service was structured similar to television broadcasting:
One very powerful transmitter located at the highest spot in an area would broadcast in
a radius of up to fifty kilometers. The cellular concept" structured the mobile telephone
network in a different way. Instead of using one powerful transmitter, many low-power
transmitters were placed throughout a coverage area. For example, by dividing a
metropolitan region into one hundred different areas (cells) with low-power
transmitters using twelve conversations (channels) each, the system capacity
theoretically could be increased from twelve conversations— or voice channels using
one powerful transmitter—to twelve hundred conversations (channels) using one
hundred low-power transmitters. Figure 2.2 shows a metropolitan area configured as a
traditional mobile telephone network with one high-power transmitter.

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 Figure 2.2 Early Mobile Telephone System Architecture

2.3 Cellular System Architecture

Increases in demand and the poor quality of existing service led mobile service
providers to research ways to improve the quality of service and to support more users
in their systems. Because the amount of frequency spectrum available for mobile
cellular use was limited, efficient use of the required frequencies was needed for mobile
cellular coverage. In modern cellular telephony, rural and urban regions are divided
into areas according to specific provisioning guidelines. Deployment parameters, such
as amount of cell-splitting and cell sizes, are determined by engineers experienced in
cellular system architecture. Provisioning for each region is planned according to an
engineering plan that includes cells, clusters, frequency reuse, and handovers.

2.3.1 Cells
A cell is the basic geographic unit of a cellular system. The term cellular comes
from the honeycomb shape of the areas into which a coverage region is divided. Cells
are base stations transmitting over small geographic areas that are represented as
hexagons. Each cell size varies depending on the landscape. Because of constraints
imposed by natural terrain and man-made structures, the true shape of cells is not a
perfect hexagon.

2.3.2 Clusters
A cluster is a group of cells. No channels are reused within a cluster. Figure

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2.3 illustrates a seven-cell cluster.

Figure 2.3 A Seven-Cell Cluster

2.3.3 Frequency Reuse

Because only a small number of radio channel frequencies were available for
mobile systems, engineers had to find a way to reuse radio channels in order to carry
more than one conversation at a time. The solution the industry adopted was called
frequency planning or frequency reuse. Frequency reuse was implemented by
restructuring the mobile telephone system architecture into the cellular concept. The
concept of frequency reuse is based on assigning to each cell a group of radio channels
used within a small geographic area. Cells are assigned a group of channels that is
completely different from neighboring cells. The coverage area of cells are called the
footprint. This footprint is limited by a boundary so that the same group of channels
can be used in different cells that are far enough away from each other so that their
frequencies do not interfere. Cells with the same number have the same set of
frequencies. Here, because the number of available frequencies is 7, the frequency
reuse factor is 1/7. That is, each cell is using 1/7 of available cellular channels.

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 Figure 2.4 Frequency Reuse

2.3.4 Handoff
The final obstacle in the development of the cellular network involved the
problem created when a mobile subscriber traveled from one cell to another during a
call. As adjacent areas do not use the same radio channels, a call must either be dropped
or transferred from one radio channel to another when a user crosses the line between
adjacent cells. Because dropping the call is unacceptable, the process of handoff was
created. Handoff occurs when the mobile telephone network automatically transfers a
call from radio channel to radio channel as a mobile crosses adjacent cells.

Figure 2.5 Handoff between Adjacent Cells

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 During a call, two parties are on one voice channel. When the mobile unit
moves out of the coverage area of a given cell site, the reception becomes weak. At this
point, the cell site in use requests a handoff. The system switches the call to a stronger-
frequency channel in a new site without interrupting the call or alerting the user. The
call continues as long as the user is talking, and the user does not notice the handoff at
all.

2.4 North American Analog Cellular Systems

Originally devised in the late 1970s to early 1980s, analog systems have been
revised somewhat since that time and operate in the 800-MHz range. A group of
government, telco, and equipment manufacturers worked together as a committee to
develop a set of rules (protocols) that govern how cellular subscriber units (mobiles)
communicate with the "cellular system." System development takes into consideration
many different, and often opposing, requirements for the system, and often a
compromise between conflicting requirements results. Cellular development involves
some basic topics:
1. frequency and channel assignments
2. type of radio modulation
3. maximum power levels
4. modulation parameters
5. messaging protocols
6. call-processing sequences

2.5 The Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)

AMPS was released in 1983 using the 800-MHz to 900-MHz frequency band
and the 30 kHz bandwidth for each channel as a fully automated mobile telephone
service. It was the first standardized cellular service in the world and is currently the
most widely used standard for cellular communications. Designed for use in cities,
AMPS later expanded to rural areas. It maximized the cellular concept of frequency
reuse by reducing radio power output. The AMPS telephones (or handsets) have the
familiar telephone-style user interface and are compatible with any AMPS base station.
This makes mobility between service providers (roaming) simpler for subscribers.
Limitations associated with AMPS include:
1. low calling capacity

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2. limited spectrum
3. no room for spectrum growth
4. poor data communications
5. minimal privacy
6. inadequate fraud protection
AMPS is used throughout the world and is particularly popular in the United
States, South America, China, and Australia. AMPS uses frequency modulation (FM)
for radio transmission. In the United States, transmissions from mobile to cell site use
separate frequencies from the base station to the mobile subscriber.

2.6 Narrowband Analog Mobile Phone Service (NAMPS)

Since analog cellular was developed, systems have been implemented
extensively throughout the world as first-generation cellular technology. In the second
generation of analog cellular systems, NAMPS was designed to solve the problem of
low calling capacity. NAMPS is now operational in 35 U.S. and overseas markets and
NAMPS was introduced as an interim solution to capacity problems. NAMPS is a U.S.
cellular radio system that combines existing voice processing with digital signaling,
tripling the capacity of today's AMPS systems. The NAMPS concept uses frequency
division to get three channels in the AMPS 30-kHz single channel bandwidth. NAMPS
provides three users in an AMPS channel by dividing the 30-kHz AMPS bandwidth
into three 10-kHz channels. This increases the possibility of interference because
channel bandwidth is reduced.

2.7 Digital Systems

As demand for mobile telephone service has increased, service providers found
that basic engineering assumptions borrowed from wireline (landline) networks did not
hold true in mobile systems. While the average landline phone call lasts at least ten
minutes, mobile calls usually run ninety seconds. Engineers who expected to assign
fifty or more mobile phones to the same radio channel found that by doing so they
increased the probability that a user would not get dial tone—this is known as call-
blocking probability. As a consequence, the early systems quickly became saturated,
and the quality of service decreased rapidly. The critical problem was capacity. The
general characteristics of TDMA, GSM, PCS1900, and CDMA promise to significantly
increase the efficiency of cellular telephone systems to allow a greater number of

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simultaneous conversations. Figure 2.6 shows the components of a typical digital
cellular system.

Figure 2.6 Digital Cellular System

The advantages of digital cellular technologies over analog cellular networks
include increased capacity and security. Technology options such as TDMA and
CDMA offer more channels in the same analog cellular bandwidth and encrypted voice
and data. Because of the enormous amount of money that service providers have
invested in AMPS hardware and software, providers look for a migration from AMPS
to DAMPS by overlaying their existing networks with TDMA architectures.

2.7.1 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

North American digital cellular (NADC) is called DAMPS and TDMA.
Because AMPS preceded digital cellular systems, DAMPS uses the same setup
protocols as analog AMPS. TDMA has the following characteristics:
1. IS–54 standard specifies traffic on digital voice channels
2. Initial implementation triples the calling capacity of AMPS systems
3. Capacity improvements of 6 to 15 times that of AMPS are possible
4. Uses many blocks of spectrum in 800 MHz and 1900 MHz
5. All transmissions are digital
6. TDMA/FDMA application
TDMA is one of several technologies used in wireless communications. TDMA
provides each call with time slots so that several calls can occupy one bandwidth. Each
caller is assigned a specific time slot. In some cellular systems, digital packets of
information are sent during each time slot and reassembled by the receiving equipment

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into the original voice components. TDMA uses the same frequency band and channel
allocations as AMPS. Like NAMPS, TDMA provides three to six time channels in the
same bandwidth as a single AMPS channel. Unlike NAMPS, digital systems have the
means to compress the spectrum used to transmit voice information by compressing
idle time and redundancy of normal speech. TDMA is the digital standard and has 30-
kHz bandwidth. Using digital voice encoders, TDMA is able to use up to six channels
in the same bandwidth where AMPS uses one channel.

2.7.2 Extended Time Division Multiple Access (E-TDMA)

The extended TDMA (E–TDMA) standard claims a capacity of fifteen times
that of analog cellular systems. This capacity is achieved by compressing quiet time
during conversations. E–TDMA divides the finite number of cellular frequencies into
more time slots than TDMA. This allows the system to support more simultaneous
cellular calls.

2.7.3 Fixed Wireless Access (FWA)

Fixed wireless access (FWA) is a radio-based local exchange service in which
telephone service is provided by common carriers. It is primarily arural application that
is, it reduces the cost of conventional wireline. FA telephone service to rural areas by
replacing a wireline local loop with radio communications. Other labels for wireless
access include fixed loop, fixed radio access, wireless telephony, radio loop, fixed
wireless, radio access, and Ionica. FWA systems employ TDMA or CDMA access
technologies.

2.7.3 Personal Communications Services (PCS)

The future of telecommunications includes personal communications services.
PCS at 1900 MHz (PCS1900) is the North American implementation of DCS1800
(Global System for Mobile communications, or GSM). Trial networks were operational
in the United States by 1993, and in 1994 the Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) began spectrum auctions. As of 1995, the FCC auctioned commercial licenses.
In the PCS frequency spectrum the operator's authorized frequency block contains a
definite number of channels. The frequency plan assigns specific channels to specific
cells, following a reuse pattern which restarts with each nth cell. The uplink and

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downlink bands are paired mirror images. As with AMPS, a channel number implies
one uplink and one downlink frequency: e.g., Channel 512 = 1850.2 MHz uplink paired
with 1930.2 MHz downlink. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital air
interface standard, claiming eight to fifteen times the capacity of analog. It employs a
commercial adaptation of military spread spectrum single-sideband technology. Based
on spread spectrum theory, it is essentially the same as wireline service—the primary
difference is that access to the local exchange carrier (LEC) is provided via wireless
phone. Because users are isolated by code, they can share the same carrier frequency,
eliminating the frequency reuse problem encountered in AMPS and DAMPS. Every
CDMA cell site can use the same 1.25 MHz band, so with respect to clusters, n = 1.
This greatly simplifies frequency planning in a fully CDMA environment. CDMA is
an interference limited system. Unlike AMPS/TDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit;
however, each user is a noise source on the shared channel and the noise contributed
by users accumulates. This creates a practical limit to how many users a system will
sustain. Mobiles that transmit excessive power increase interference to other mobiles.
For CDMA, precise power control of mobiles is critical in maximizing the system's
capacity and increasing battery life of the mobiles. The goal is to keep each mobile at
the absolute minimum power level that is necessary to ensure acceptable service
quality. Ideally, the power received at the base station from each mobile should be the
same (minimum signal to interference).

2.8 Atoll Software

Forsk is an independent company providing radio planning and optimization
software solutions to the wireless industry since1987 (Atoll User Manual for Radio
Networks). In 1997, Forsk released the first version of Atoll, its flagship radio planning
software. Since then, Atoll has evolved to become a comprehensive radio planning and
optimization platform and, with more than 7000 installed licenses worldwide, has
reached the leading position on the global market. Atoll combines engineering and
automation functions that enable operators to smoothly and gradually implement SON
processes within their organization (Atoll User Manual for Radio Networks).
Today, Forsk is a global supplier with over 450 customers in 120 countries and
strategic partnerships with major players in the industry. Forsk distributes and supports
Atoll directly from offices and technical support centers in France, USA, and China as

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well as through a worldwide network of distributors and partners(Atoll User Manual
for Radio Networks). Since the first release of Atoll, Forsk has been known for its
capability to deliver tailored and turn-key radio planning and optimization
environments based on Atoll (Atoll User Manual for Radio Networks). To help
operators streamline their radio planning and optimization processes, Forsk provides a
complete range of implementation services, including integration with existing IT
infrastructure, automation, as well as data migration, installation, and training services
(Atoll User Manual for Radio Networks).

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 CHAPTER 3
SYSTEM DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

This system employs advanced algorithms and predictive modeling to optimize

radio performance in challenging network environments. Key components include
coverage analysis, real-time data monitoring, machine learning for dynamic parameter
adjustments, and proactive fault detection. The implementation follows a phased
approach: requirements analysis, modular architecture design, algorithm development,
rigorous testing, deployment with minimal disruption, and continuous refinement based
on user feedback and performance metrics.

3.1 LTE
LTE is based on orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) thus
enabling it to transmit efficiently over higher bandwidths while being resilient to the
channel conditions and interference. In the downlink, i.e. from base station to the user
equipment, LTE uses OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) and
in the uplink, i.e. from user equipment to the base station, it uses SC-FDMA (Single
Carrier - Frequency Division Multiple Access). The SC-FDMA is adopted for uplink
due to its low peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) when compared to OFDMA. This
enables a better coverage in the uplink by utilizing the power amplifier efficiently.

Figure 3.1 OFDMA and SC-FDMA

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 The OFDM splits the wideband carrier in to multiple overlapping narrowband
orthogonal subcarriers for carrying the data. A frequency-time domain representation
of a 5 MHz OFDM signal is shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Frequency-time representation of OFDM signal

OFDMA technology has been incorporated into LTE because it enables high
data bandwidths to be transmitted efficiently while still providing a high degree of
resilience to reflections and interference. LTE was initially designed to support a
scalable bandwidth (BW) of up to 20 MHz with a peak data rate of 300 Mbps using a
4 × 4 multiple input multiple output (MIMO) configuration and 64 QAM modulation,
and later extended to support up to 100 MHz by aggregating five 20 MHz carriers. A
unified frame and symbol structure is defined for all the supported bandwidths with the
same subcarrier spacing of 15 KHz.

3.2 LTE Frame Structure

LTE uses OFDM as its waveform, and defines two types of frame structures for
frequency division duplex (FDD) and time division duplex (TDD) mode.

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 Figure 3.3 FDD & TDD

The radio frame length is of 10 ms duration, and it is divided into 10 subframes

each of 1 ms duration. Each subframe consists of two slots each of length 0.5 ms. Each
slot contains 7 (for normal CP) or 6 (for extended CP) OFDM symbols. The unit of
allocation is in terms of resource blocks (RB) which composed of one slot duration and
12 subcarriers. Scheduling is done in terms of RB pairs. A resource element (RE) is the
smallest element in the RB which is of one subcarrier for one OFDM symbol duration.
Therefore, a RB consists of 84 REs (for normal CP), or 72 REs (for extended CP).

Figure 3.4 Frame structure used for FDD

3.2.1 LTE Development Technology
The data transmitted to the UE in LTE are in terms of transport blocks (TBs).
The TB size in LTE is of pre-determined lengths, and moreover, the allocation of
resources is in terms of multiples of RB pairs. The chosen TB size may not match the
size of the allocated resources. To fit the TB in the allocated resources, some of the
bits will be punctured, or more redundant bits are added depending on the bits in the
TB and the number of bits the allocated resources can accommodate. Puncturing and
repetition will result in increasing and decreasing the code rate, respectively.

Figure 3.5 LTE Peak User Bit Rates at 5MHz BW

 Figure 3.6 LTE Peak User Bit Rates at 20MHz BW

3.3 System Requirements

In order to set up the 4G network system, eNodeB, serving GPRS suppoprt node
(SGSN), gateway GPRS support node (GGSN), signaling gateway (SGW), packet data
network gateway (PGW).

Figure 3.7 4G Network Architecture

3.3.1 Evolved NodeB

Evolved NodeB or eNodeB, is a critical component of the Long Term Evolution
(LTE) wireless network architecture. It serves as the base station in LTE networks,
responsible for transmitting and receiving radio signals to and from User Equipment
(UE), such as smartphones and tablets.
3.3.2 Mobility Management Entity
The MME is the key control-node for the LTE access-network. It is responsible
for idle mode UE (User Equipment) paging and tagging procedure including
retransmissions.

3.3.3 Home Subscriber Server ( HSS )

The home subscriber server (HSS), or user profile server function (UPSF), is a
master user database that supports the IMS network entities that actually handle calls.

3.3.4 Serving GPRS support node ( SGSN )

The Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) is a main component of the GPRS
network, which handles all packet switched data within the network, e.g. the mobility
management and authentication of the users. The SGSN performs the same functions
as the MSC for voice traffic.

3.3.5 Gateway GPRS support node ( GGSN )

The Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) is a main component of the GPRS
network. The GGSN is responsible for the interworking between the GPRS network
and external packet switched networks, like the Internet and X.25 networks. ... On the
other hand, mobile-originated packets are routed to the right network by the GGSN.

3.3.6 Signaling Gateway ( SGW )

A signaling gateway (SGW) is a network component used for sending signaling
messages between common channel signaling (CCS) nodes, which communicate with
the help of different transports and protocols.

3.3.7 Packet Data Network ( PGW )

The PGW acts as the interface between the LTE network and other packet data
networks, such as the Internet or SIP-based IMS networks.. The PGW serves as the
anchor point for network mobility and: Acts as the Policy and Charging Enforcement
Function (PCEF) Manages quality of service (QoS).
3.3.8 Policy and Charging Rules Function ( PCRF )
Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) is the software node designated
in real-time to determine policy rules in a multimedia network. As a policy tool, the
PCRF plays a central role in next-generation networks.

3.3.9 Evolved Packet Core ( EPC )

The Evolved Packet Core (EPC) is the central core network architecture of LTE
(Long Term Evolution) cellular networks. It is responsible for managing the packet-
switched data traffic between user devices (UEs) and the external networks, such as the
internet or private corporate networks. The EPC provides key functions such as
mobility management, authentication, IP address assignment, quality of service (QoS)
management, and charging for LTE services.

Figure 3.8 Evolved Packet Core ( EPC )