OUR OWN HIGH SCHOOL, DUBAI

CHAPTER – 8
How do Organisms Reproduce

– Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new

individuals similar to themselves.
– Reproduction ensured continuity of life on earth.
– Reproduction - A bridge to hereditary transmission.
– It involves continuation of characters from the parents to daughter cells by
Copying of DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) molecules present in the
chromosomes of the cell.
– Copying of DNAs is also not a foolproof exercise, even minute changes bring
about Variation in the blue print of the offsprings.
– The useful variations are retained while the harmful one does not go beyond.
– Actually variations help the species to withstand drastic environmental
changes, thus save the species from becoming extinct and promotes its
survival for a longer time.
– This inbuilt tendency of variation is the "fuel" for Evolution.
REPRODUCTION

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

1. A single parent is involved 1. Both Parents involved
2. Gametes not formed 2. Gametes are formed
3. Progeny is Identical to parent 3. Progeny is only genetically
eg. Fission in Amoeba similar to the parent.

– Asexual Reproduction is extremely useful as a mean of rapid multiplication.

It is common in lower plants and animals.
– Different form of Asexual Reproduction.
1. FISSION : the parent cell divides/splits into two daughter cell-Binary
Fission; splits into many cells-multiple Fission

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2. BUDDING : A new organism is produced as an outgrowth of the parent
body part.

3. Spore Formation : Spores are

small, bulb like structure develops
at the top of the erect hyphae of the
fungus plant, released into the air
and ge r m i n a t e , i n t o new
individuals after landing into food
or soil.

4. FRAGMENTATION : It is the accidental process when the broken pieces

of an organism (fragments) grows into a complete organism.

eg. fragmentation in
spirogyra

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 5. REGENERATION : When the simple animals like Hydra Planaria
develop a new individual from their broken older part it is known as
regeneration. It is carried out by specialised cells which grow large numbers
of cells.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION :
A mode of reproduction in which part like the stem, root, leaves develop into new
plant under favourable conditions.
Benefits
1. Plants can bear flowers, fruits earlier than those produced from seeds.
2. Growing Banana, orange, rose, jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce
seeds.
3. Genetical similarity is maintained in the plants.
eg. Sugarcane, rose, grapes by layering or grafting.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
When reproduction takes place as a result of fusion between two gamets, one from
each parent, it is called sexual reproduction.
– This process of fusion between two gamets is called fertilization.
– The formation of gamets involves exchange of chromosomal (genetic)
fragments between homologous chromosomes causing genetic
recombination which leads to variation.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
It occurs mostly in flowering plants. In fact flowers are the reproductive organ of
plants.

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 FLOWERS

Bisexual Flowers Unisexual Flowers

Both male and female Either male or female
reproductive part i.e., stamen & reproductive part is present.
carpel present. Eg. Papaya, Watermelon
Eg. Hibiscus, mustard

A typical flower consists of four main whorls namely calyx (sepals), Corolla
(Petals), Androecium (Stamens) and Gynoecium (Carpels).

Reproductive Part of Flower

STAMEN CARPEL
(male part (female part)
(2n) Style Stigma
Filament Anther Ovary
(2n)
MEIOSIS Egg cell (ovule) [n]
(n) Pollen grain
(male gamet)

– Pollen grains of a flower transfer to stigma of the carpel of the same flower
(Self-Pollination) or to the carpel of the another flower (Cross-Pollination).
– This transfer of pollens is achieved by agent like wind, water or animals.
– After Pollination, the pollen grains reach to the egg cell in the form of a pollen
tube.

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– Fertilization : The fusion between the pollen grain and female egg cell. It
occurs inside the ovary. Zygote is produced in this process.

– Zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The ovule
develops a tough coat and is converted into a seed.
– Ovary grows rapidly and ripens to forms a fruit, while the seed contains the
future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under suitable
condition. This process is known as Germination.
REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS
– Humans use a Sexual Mode of reproduction.
– It needs sexual maturation which includes creation of the germ cells ie, egg
(ova) in the female and sperm in the male partener & this period of sexual
maturation is called Puberty.
– Human beings have a well developed male and female reproductive system.
– The formation of male germ cell (sperms) takes place in the testes (male
reproducture organ)
– Actually a pair of testes are located inside scrotum situated outside the
abdominal cavity. It is meant to keep relatively a low temperature needed for
the production of sperms by testes.
– Moreover testes release a male sex hormone called testosterone whose
function is to:
1. Regulate the production of sperm
2. Brings about changes in appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty.

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– The sperms along with the secretion of prostate gland and seminal vesicle,
together constitute semen, which is released and made to enter into the female
genital tract during Copulation.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female germ cells or eggs are made in the ovaries, a pair of which is
located in both side of abdomen.
When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain thousands of immature eggs.
At the puberty, some of these Eggs start maturing. One egg is produced every
month by one of the ovaries.
The Egg is carried from the ovary to the womb through a fallopian tube. These
two fallopian tube unite into an elastic bag like structure known as Uterus.
The Uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube of female genital tract.
The fertilized egg also called zygote (2n) gets implanted in the lining of the
Uterus, and start dividing. Actually uterus is richly supplied with blood to
nourish the growing embryo. If zygote is not formed, the inner wall of uterus
breaks which causes bleeding through vagina. This process is called
MENSTRUATION. It occurs at a regular interval of 28 days.
The Embroyo gets nutrition fromthe mother's blood with the help of a special
tissue called PLACENTA. It provides a large surface area for glucose and
oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo. Similarly the wastes from
developing embryo are removed to mother's blood through placenta.
The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the
uterus. after Nine months (36 weeks) of development inside mother's womb.
It is also called Gestation Period.

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 The sexual cycle in a woman continues upto the age of 45 to 50 years. After
that the ovary do not release egg. This stage is called Menopause. It a also
marks the end of menstruation in the woman.
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Reproductive Health means a total well-being in all aspects of reproductive,
ie., physical emotional, social and behavioural.
Contraception : It is the avoidance of pregnancy. It can be achieved by
Methods of contraception

PHYSICAL SURGICAL CHEMICAL

BARRIER METHOD METHOD

To prevent union of Also called sterilization Oral contraceptive

sperm & egg. in Vasectomy, the vas (OCs) - changes the
Use of condoms, deferens of male is hormonal balance to
Diaphragm & cervical blocked to prevent check the egg release in
caps. sperm transfer. females. OCs cause side
In Tubectomy, the effect.
fallopian tube of female
is blocked to prevent
egg to reach uterus.
Copper-T or loop is
placed in uterus to
prevent pregancy.

Healthy society needs a balanced sex ratio that can be achieved by educating
the people to avoid malpractices like female foeticide & pre-natal sex
determination.
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STDs)

VIRAL STDs Bacterial STDs

Eg. H.I.V. - AIDS Eg. Syphilis &
Warts Gonorrhoea

STDs are communicated during unsafe sexual contact.

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 EXERCISE
(Question Bank)
1. Where is the DNA present in the cell?
2. What is bisexual/hermaphrodite?
3. Write suitable condition necessary for seed germmration.
4. Write the function of the secretion of seminal vesicle and prostate gland.
5. Name the part of female body in which the egg is fertilized.
6. Name the chemical method to prevent the pregnancy.
2 Marks
7. What is importance of DNA copying in reproduction.
8. Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the
individual?
9. Why is vegetative propagation practised for growing some types of plants?
10. Name any two STDs. What measures can you suggest to prevent them.
11. Distinguish between male & female gamete.
12. Write two important function of testosterone.
13. What is placenta. Also write its two functions?
14. Draw a well labelled diagram of human female reproductive system.
Explain the menstrual cycle of female.
15. Draw a labelled diagram to explain the fertilization in the higher plant.

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 How do Organisms Reproduce?

IN CHAPTER QUESTIONS

PART - 1

Q1. What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?

Ans. DNA copying is important phenomena through which organism pass their character to offspring
and produce variation.

Q2. Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the individual?
Ans. A particular variation in an individual may not be suitable for any given condition but when
condition changes such variation may save it from being dead and leads to form a new population
with suitable character.

PART - 2

Q1. How does binary fission differ from multiple fission?

Ans. In binary fission, one nucleus divides only once and results into the formation of two daughter
nuclei but in multiple fission, the nucleus undergo repeated cell division resulting many nuclei.
So, in binary fission only two daughter cells are produced but in multiple fission many cells are
produced.

Q2. How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces through spores?

Ans. (i) Spores are protected by hard covering which can tolerate hardship of environmental conditions.
(ii) Being light weight they can be carried away by air and water currents to new locations where
on germination give rise to new individuals.

Q3. Can you think of reasons why more complex organisms cannot give rise to new individuals
through regeneration?
Ans. As the organisms become more and more complex they lose the property of regeneration. So
they fail to regenerate.

Q4. Why is vegetative propagation practised for growing some types of plants?
Ans. There are several reasons for which vegetative propagation is favoured. They are as follows :
(i) Either they do not produce seeds or their seeds are not viable.
(ii) Their qualities are good and we want to preserve those qualities.
(iii) Only male or female plant is available.
(iv) Fast growth.

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 How do Organisms Reproduce?

Q5. Why is DNA copying an essential part of the process of reproduction?

Ans. Basic event in reproduction is production of DNA copies in a reproducing cell. The process is
called DNA replication. When the cell divides into two, each new cell gets a copy of each DNA
or chromosome along with the whole cellular apparatus.
Complete accuracy in DNA copying leads to two exactly identical cells but any error in duplication
can lead to dissimilar cells or variations.

PART - 3

Q1. How is the process of pollination different from fertilisation?

Ans.

Q2. What is the role of the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland?
Ans. Seminal vesicles are responsible for adding a fluid medium to sperms and provides nutrition for
sperms whereas prostate gland adds fluid for their motility, maintaining pH in female reproductive
tract.

Q3. What are the changes seen in girls at the time of puberty?
Ans. Following are the changes seen in female at the time of puberty-
A. Growth of hair under armpits and pubic region.
B. Darkening of pubic region.
C. High pitch voice.
D. Growth and development of breast.
E. Darkening of area around nipples.
F. Onset of menstrual cycle.

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 How do Organisms Reproduce?

Q4. How does the embryo get nourishment inside the mother’s body?
Ans. The embryo gets nutrition from the mother's blood with the help of a special tissue called placenta.
This is a disc which is embedded in the uterine wall. It contains villi. On the mother's side are
blood spaces, which surround the villi. This provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen
to pass from the mother to the embryo.

Q5. If a woman is using a copper-T, will it help in protecting her from sexually transmitted diseases?
Ans. No,sexually transmitted diseases occur due to fluid to fluid contact that takes place in the vagina.

3
 How do Organisms Reproduce?

EXERCISES
Q1. Asexual reproduction takes place through budding in
(A) Amoeba
(B) Yeast
(C) Plasmodium
(D) Leishmania.
Ans. (B) Yeast

Q2. Which of the following is not a part of the female reproductive system in human beings ?
(A) Ovary
(B) Uterus
(C) Vas deferens
(D) Fallopian tube
Ans. (C) Vas deferens.

Q3. The anther contains

(A) Sepals
(B) Ovules
(C) Carpel
(D) Pollen grains.
Ans. (D) Pollen grain

Q4. What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction ?
Ans. (i) Sexual reproduction is better than asexual reproduction because it brings variation which is
necessary to have in a population so in case of adversity of environment all the member does
not die but members with suitable variation survive to save the population from getting
extinct.
(ii) These variation collected over a period of time leads to formation of new species.

Q5. What are the functions performed by the testes in human beings?
Ans. Testes are responsible for production of sperms and testosterone hormone.

4
 How do Organisms Reproduce?
Q6. Why does menstruation occur?
Ans. It occurs when egg produced is not fertilized. So thick and soft lining of uterus breaks down,
shedding blood along with mucous which comes out of vagina in form of bleeding.

Q7. Draw a labeled diagram of the longitudinal section of a flower.

Ans.

Q8. What are the different methods of contraception?

Ans. Different methods of contraception can be classified into four categories :
(i) Barrier method in which sperms are prevented to come in contact with ovum to avoid fertilization,
this is used by male in the form of condoms and females in the form of cervical cap.
(ii) Chemical methods- Some hormonal pills are available for females which are hormonal
preparation and inhibit process of ovulation.
(iii) IUCD - are Intra Uterine Contraceptive Devices which prevents the implantation of fertilized
egg into uterus.
(iv) Surgical methods - In males, vas deferens is cut and tied and or in females fallopian tubes
are cut and tied so the sperms can not come in contact with ovum to lead to fertilization.

Q9. How are the modes for reproduction different in unicellular and multicellular organisms ?
Ans. Unicellular organisms reproduce by binary fission (e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium), multiple
fission (e.g. Plasmodium), budding (e.g. Yeast), spore formation (e.g. Bacteria, Amoeba), but
multicellular organisms reproduce by means of budding (e.g. Hydra), fragmentation (e.g.
Spirogyra), regeneration (e.g. Hydra), vegetative propagation in all plants and sexual
reproduction in all higher plants and animals.

Q10. How does reproduction help in providing stability to populations of species ?

Ans. By reproduction variations are added in population, which may be suitable for some changing
conditions of environment. In case of adversity of environment some of member survives and
prevents the entire population from vanishing off.

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 How do Organisms Reproduce?
Q11. What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods ?
Ans. Contraceptive methods are adopted for one or more of following reasons-
(i) To maintain the population size by preventing unwanted children.
(ii) To maintain the distance between two children and to plan the family size.
(iii) To prevent from sexually transmitting diseases.
(iv) Good reproductive health.

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NAVODAYA VIDYALAYA SAMITI,
NOIDA
E-CONTENT FOR CLASS X SCIENCE
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

Prepared by
P.KAMARAJ
PGT BIOLOGY, JNV KANNUR
 HOW DO ORGANISMS
REPRODUCE
● REPRODUCTION IS THE BIOLOGICAL
PROCESS OF PRODUCING YOUNG ONES.
● it enables continuity of species generation
after generation.
 ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION AND
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
•Asexual reproduction is a form of
reproduction in which an organism gives
rise to genetically-identicalindividuals.
It involve only single parent.
TYPES OF ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
■ FISSION
■ FRAGMENTATION
■ BUDDING
■ VEGETATIVE
PROPAGATION
■ SPORE FORMNATION
 FISSION

It is the process of division of a single Cell

into two or more individuals
TYPES OF FISSION:
▪1.BINARY FISSION
▪2. MULTIPLE FISSION
 BINARY FISSION
▪ Binary fission is an form of asexual
reproduction by which the body splits
into two new bodies.
▪ Eg: AMOEBA , AND LEISHMANIA
 MULTIPLE FISSION

▪A single cell splits into many daughter

cells are produced from the parent cell.
▪ Eg:Plasmodium
 FRAGMENTATION
▪ Body breaks into fragments.each
fragment develops into an organism+
▪ Eg: Spirogyra
 REGENERATION
▪ Some organisms have Ability to give rise to
new individual organism from lost body
parts. Eg.Planaria
 Vegetative Propagation
• It is a kind of asexual
reproduction in Which a
vegetative parts of a plant like
stem, leaf and root grows into
a new plantlet.
• Vegetative propagation can
occur naturally or Artificially.
• Types of natural vegetative
propagation are tubers, runner,
rhizomes and bulbs.
• Types artificial vegetative
propagation are cuttings and
grafting.
 Vegetative Propagation
Cuttings
• Pieces of a root or stem that in
certain conditions are made into
new plants.
• Some examples are bananas, roses
and sugar cane
Grafting
• Taking a part of a plant and
connecting it to another one.
• Combining the two plants.
• Some examples are seedless
oranges and grapes.
 SPORE FORMATION
• Spores develop into an individual
organism. Eg.Rhizopus.It develop spores
like blob-on-a-stick like structures.
 • SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN
FLOWERING PLANTS

• Sexual Reproduction:
• Flower produces gametes which
fuse together to produce a new
individual
• Floral parts:
include,sepals,petals,stamens and
pistil. Stamens-anther and
filament
• POLLINATION:

• Transfer of pollens to stigma.

• Self-pollination: Pollen is transferred
to a stigma of the same flower, or
another flower on the same plant
• Cross pollination: pollen reaches the
stigma of a flower on a different
plant (of same species)
• DIAGRAM OF LS OF A
FLOWER
• DOUBLE FERTILIZATION

• Pollen tube grows along style and

reach embryo sac.
• One male gamete of pollen fuses
with egg cell and forms zygote
• other male gamete fuses with
polar nuclei and forms endosperm
• Embryo: The growth of a zygote
results into an embryo
• Seed: ovules- and Fruit-ovary
GROWTH OF POLLEN
TUBE
 • DOUBLE
FERTILIZATION
 NAVODAYA VIDYALAYA SAMITI

■
 Human
Reproduction
■ Both sexes have
reproductive organs called
GENITALS or GENITALIA
designed for the purpose of
intercourse and conception
 • Female Reproductive
System
■ Female reproductive organs are for
intercourse, reproduction, urination
pregnancy and childbirth
Front View

Click
here
 Ovary (Ovaries)
■ Two solid egg-shaped structures
■ They are attached to the uterus by ligaments.
They are the counterpart of the male testicles.
■ Ovaries have two main functions:

1-store and release the ova or female egg cell. Some of the
ova disappear; others are dormant until each is ripened and
released after puberty.

#2-produce female sex hormones ESTROGEN and

PROGESTERONE Click
here
 Ova
■ The female reproductive cell.
■ They are the largest cells in
the female body. (about the size of
a grain of sand.)

■ The female baby is born with

all the ova she will ever have
(about 200,000 in each ovary).

■ About 400-500 ova mature

and are released over a
lifetime

Click
here
 Estrogen

■ Estrogen is responsible for the

secondary sex characteristics and the sex
drive in females. It spurs the onset of
puberty and is responsible for
OVULATION.

Click
here
 Progesterone

■ Progesterone builds up the lining of the

uterus called the endometrium in
preparation for the fertilized ovum

Click
here
 Ovulation
■ When the egg is released from the ovary.
■ At the age of puberty
■ The ovum moves to the surface of the ovary in
bursts out
■ The ova falls into the fallopian tube and waits for
fertilization
■ This happens every 28 days
■ It happens at about the 14th day of the cycle

Click
here
 FALLOPIAN TUBES
(oviducts)
■ Two tubes attached on either side of the uterus.

■ They are about four inches long and 3/16 inch in

diameter (the size of a cooked spaghetti noodle).

■ The oviducts carry egg cells toward the uterus and

sperm cells toward the egg cell.

■ Fertilization takes place in the upper third of the

oviduct.
 Uterus
■ A hollow, muscular organ (shaped somewhat like
an upside-down pear, about the size of a fist).
■ The uterus is lined with endometrium (a blood
lining.)
■ The uterus has one main function—to protect
and nourish a fetus
■ The walls of the uterus have the ability to
stretch to the size of a small watermelon.
■ After childbirth the uterus shrinks back to the
original shape in 6-8 weeks, but it can take up
to nine months for the uterus to fully recover.
 Cervix
■ The neck or opening of the uterus.
■ A normal healthy cervix is the strongest muscle
in the body.
■ It dips down about half an inch into the vagina.
■ It is normally plugged by mucus. It stays tightly
closed during pregnancy, but thins and opens for
the delivery of the baby.
■ How big does it need to dilate to for birth?

Click
here
 Vagina
■ Female organ used for intercourse, it is an
empty passageway leading from the
vaginal opening to the uterus.
■ It is only 3-4 inches long, but will lengthen
during arousal.
■ The vaginal walls are made of many small
folds of membrane that stretch greatly to
accommodate a baby during birth.
■ The vaginal wall also secrete a fluid that
helps to make intercourse easier.
Click
here
 Urethra

■ The opening to the bladder

Click
here
 Clitoris

■ A small, pea shaped bump at the front of

the labia.
■ It contains a small amount of erectile
tissue.
■ The clitoris increases sexual pleasure

Click
here
 Woman’s Cycle
■ Day 1 – Menstruation begins (bleeding)
■ Day 5 – Menstruation is usually ended
■ Day 14 – Ovum has matured and bursts out of
the ovary
■ Day 15 – After 24 hours the egg is done
■ Day 26 – In the absence of fertilization,
estrogen/progesterone levels drop
and the endometrium lining breads
down
■ Day 28 – Menstruation begins again Click
here
 TIME LINE:
■ Ages 9-12

■ Secondary sex characteristics appear

■ Ages 11-14
■ Menstrual cycle begins
■ Late 20-30's
■ Peak sexual urges
■ Ages 45-55
■ Menopause (cycle stops, but sex urge continues)

here
Click

here
 Male Reproductive System

Male reproductive organs are for

intercourse, reproduction and urination
 Scrotum

■ A sac-like pouch located behind the penis

that holds each testes and helps regulate
temperature for sperm production.
 Testicles or Testes
■ The two testes are small organs that lie in the scrotum
and produce sperm and the male hormone
testosterone.
■ The testicles are the male sex gland.
■ The testicles are outside the body because the male
sperm that is manufactured in the testes need
cooler-than-body temperature for normal growth and
development.
■ They are the counterpart to the female ovary.
■ Loss of one does not impair the function of the other.
■ Four to five billion sperm cells are produced each
month.
The pill
■ A hormonal method that contains:
■ estrogen and progesterone or
■ progesterone only
■ Prevents the release of a mature egg
■ Thickens cervical mucous
■ Changes the lining of the uterus
■ Typical effectiveness rate is 91%
Intra-uterine Contraception -IUC
■ T-Shaped device that is inserted in the
uterus by a Doctor or Nurse Practitioner
■ Two types of IUC:
■ the Copper intrauterine device (no hormone)
■ the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine
system (contains a progestin)
■ Typical effectiveness rate is 99.8%
 Hormonal methods of birth
control
■ Side effects that may occur during the first few
months on hormonal contraception include :
▪ irregular bleeding, spotting

▪ nausea

▪ mood swings

▪ bloating

▪ breast tenderness

▪ headaches
 Emergency contraception
■ Can be taken up to 5 days after intercourse
■ The sooner it is taken, the better it works
■ Delays or prevents the release of an egg
■ May prevent implementation of a fertilized egg
■ 95 % effective if taken within 24 hours after
intercourse
■ 85% effective if taken 25-48 hours after
intercourse
■ 58% effective if taken 49-72 hours after
intercourse
Barrier methods
(non-hormonal)
Surgical
Methods
 Sterilization

■ Tubal ligation - a surgical procedure to

close or block the fallopian tubes
ensuring sperm and egg do not meet
 Sterilization

■ Vasectomy - A surgical procedure to

close or block the vas deferens