Q1

Q2

When ice is heated, it goes through a change of state from solid to liquid to gas. The
solid state represents the ice (Section A), before it starts to melt (B) change of state
ice and water. (C) The liquid state and the temperature of the liquid increases, (D)
liquid and the gas, (E) gas state

b. The melting point of ice is 0°C, and the boiling point of ice is 100°C.

c. During a change of state, the temperature remains constant. For example, when
ice is heated, the temperature remains at 0°C until all the ice has melted. During the
melting process, the energy from the heat is used to break the bonds between
them and allowing them to move more freely. Once all the ice has melted, the
temperature starts to increase again, as the kinetic energy of the particles is now
used to increase their speed.

D. E (vapor) is the steepest , then A: Ice , then C water the least.

The specific heat of water is the largest ( so more energy to raise the temperature of
water by 1 0 C than it does to raise the temperature of ice or vapour by 1 0C

Or we can say that, The specific heat of water is the largest, The temperature rise
of water takes longer ( you can see it from the figure that it takes more time to
raise the temperature of water / or the rate of temperature rise of water is the
slowest)
3. Specific heat capacity is the amount of thermal energy required to raise the
temperature of a substance by 1°C. The formula for calculating the amount of
thermal energy required to increase the temperature of a substance is:

Q = mcΔT

where Q is the amount of thermal energy, m is the mass of the substance, c is the
specific heat capacity of the substance, and ΔT is the change in temperature.

4.

a. To measure the specific heat capacity of a substance experimentally, the following

instruments are required: a calorimeter, a thermometer, a heater, and a power
supply and a digital scale. The procedure involves heating a known mass of the
substance in the calorimeter, measuring the initial and final temperatures, and
calculating the specific heat capacity using the formula

C= Q/m ΔT.

b. To improve the accuracy of the experiment, the following factors need to be

considered: using a well-insulated calorimeter to reduce heat loss to the
surroundings, stirring the substance to ensure even heating, measuring the
temperature accurately, and repeating the experiment to obtain an average value.

5.

a) Thermal expansion is the increase in size of a substance due to an increase in its

temperature. Examples include the expansion of metal bridges and railroad tracks in
hot weather, the expansion of liquid in a thermometer, and the expansion of air in a
hot air balloon.

b) Thermal expansion occurs because as the temperature of a substance

increases, the kinetic energy of its particles increases, causing them to move
more rapidly and to occupy more space.

N.B: Opposite is thermal contraction is when the a solid , liquid or a gas is cooled,
its particles lose kinetic energy and vibrate slowly , which causes the distance
between the particles to decrease ( occupy less space ) , and the volume of the
substance will decrease.

c) A bimetallic strip is a device made of two metals bonded together that expand at
different rates when heated(different coefficients of thermal expansion) . this causes
the strip to bend.

Bimetallic switches are used in many temperature-activated switches as explained

below.

It is used to detect and measure changes in temperature. A bimetallic strip can be

used in a circuit to open or close a switch as bimetallic thermostat (regulates
temperature, if temperature rises the strip bends and contacts separate which cuts
off the current to heater and vice versa for temperature fall. Ex 2: bimetallic toaster:
temperature rises, strip bend allowing toasted bread to pop up.
d. Thermal expansion is greatest in gases and smallest in solids.

Solids: have very strong intermolecular forces between particles which causes
them to be tightly packed together, this makes it difficult for solids to expand and
compress.

Liquids have strong intermolecular forces between particles, but they are not as
strong as the forces in solids. This allows liquids to expand and compress more easily
than solids.

Gases have very weak intermolecular forces between particles, which causes them
to be far apart from each other. This makes it easy for gases to expand and
compress.

Solids have the least expansion and contraction , gases have the most contraction
and expansion.

e. Consequences of thermal expansion in overhead cables and in bridges:

overhead cables have to be slack, allowing for contraction on cold days.

Bridges: Gaps must be left in bridges allowing for expansion on hot days.
6.
a) Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of one unit of mass of a substance by one degree Celsius.

b) Experiment to calculate the specific heat capacity of water:

Procedure:
Calculate the specific heat capacity of water using the formula:
C = Q/(M x ΔT) , C=pxt/ (M x ΔT), so the quantities you are required to measure
are:
So the instruments required are : scale to measure the mass of the water ,
Thermometer to measure the change in temperature of water, heater to heat the
water ,stop watch to measure the time, voltmeter and an ammeter to measure
current and voltage to calculate the power.
Improving accuracy of the experiment:
Use a high-precision thermometer to measure the temperatures of the water and
metal block.
Stir the water and metal block mixture thoroughly to ensure that the
temperature is uniform throughout.
Minimize heat loss by using an insulated calorimeter.
Repeat the experiment multiple times to obtain an average value and reduce the
effect of random errors.

c)

7.
a) Water has high specific heat capacity.
b) As the water is heated, a convection current flow.
c) The radiator has metal fins so thermal energy is conducted (conduction
method)
d) Black to increase the rate of thermal energy radiation.
8.
a) Factors: increasing the temperature, Greater surface area , wind .

b) Increasing the temperature:

Larger surface area:

Wind speed ( draught):

c)
 a. Explain the cooling of an object in contact with an evaporating liquid. And
explain sweating and it’s cooling effect.
As a liquid evaporates, the remining liquid cools. This means thermal
energy will flow to the liquid from an object in contact with it.
Application in real life.
Sweating cooling effect: When we get hot, we sweat. The sweat
evaporates, and the remaining sweat cools, causing thermal energy to
flow from the skin to the sweat. This helps us cool down.
Or you can say that: Most energetic particles escape from the
surface of water, less energetic remain, thermal energy is
transferred from the person skin to the sweat causing the person
to feel colder.
Another real-life example about the cooling effect: covering a
bottle of milk with a damp cloth will help to cool the milk. ( same
explanation )

9.

Conduction, convention and radiation.

Thermal Conduction:
Thermal conduction: Flow of heat through matter, from regions of higher
temperature to regions of lower temperature without the movement of matter
as a whole.
Important to differentiate between Thermal conduction in metals and in non-
metals:
Thermal conduction in non-metats : atoms vibrate passing on vibrations to
adjacent atoms.
Thermal Conduction in metals: Atoms vibrate pass on vibrations to adjacent
atoms, Also electrons are free to move collide with atoms and pass on
vibrations.

Convection:
Convection is the flow of heat through fluids from regions of higher temperature
to region of lower temperature with movement of fluid. As particles circulate,
energy transfer takes place.
How is convection current created: As fluid warms , it expands (its volume
increases ) so it becomes less dense and it floats upwards, while the cooler,
more dense fluid which is denser sinks.

Radiation:
Flow of heat from one place to another via electromagnetic wave ( infrared
radiations or IR ).
All objects emit this radiation.
Thermal energy transfer by radiation does not require a medium.
Black and dull are best absorbers and emitters of infrared radiations.
White and silver or shinny surfaces are best reflectors of Infrared radiations

Experiment to demonstrate thermal

Q10.

conduction in different metals.

 Experiment to demonstrate that water is
Q11.

a poor thermal conductor.

. a)Experiment to demonstrate the

Q12

convection current in water.

b)Experiment to demonstrate Convection current

in gas.
Q13

Emitters , reflectors and absorbers

When talking about thermal radiations we have to differentiate between thermal
emitters, reflectors and absorbers. Explain the difference between each and give
some examples.
Emitters: emits thermal radiation and cools down quickly. Best emitters are
matt black, worst are silver.
Reflectors: reflects thermal radiation. Best reflectors are silver, worst are
matt black.
Absorber: Absorbs thermal radiation. Heats up quickly. Best absorbers are matt
black worst silver
So matt black is best absorber and emitter.
And silver is best reflector.
Q14
• Vacuum reduces heat losses by conduction and convection, because only
radiations can travel through vacuum
• Silvered inner surfaces , reduces losses by radiations, by reflecting
infrared radiations and trapping them inside.
• Using an insulating material such as glass is a good insulating material
because it reduces heat losses by conduction.
• Stoppers prevents losses by convection and evaporation.

Q15
Q

Q16.
If an object transfers energy away at the same rate it receives energy, will this
increase, decrease or keep the temperature constant. ( temperature constant )
b. if the rate at which an object receives energy is less than the rate at which it
transfers it away, will this increase , decrease or keep the temperature constant.
( decrease the temperature)

17. Describe an experiment to distinguish between good and bad emitter of

infrared radiation.

Add the same volume of hot water and at the same initial temperature. Separate
the two cans with a board to isolate the cans. Place the cans on a wooden bench
to reduce heat loss by conduction. (wood is a thermal insulator) . measure the
temperature of both cans after a certain amount of time. The temperature of the
matt black will be less than that of the shiny silver as matt black is a good
emitter of infrared radiation.
18. Describe an experiment to distinguish between good and bad absorbers
and Reflector of infrared radiation.

Add the same volume of hot water and at the same initial temperature. Place the
two cans equidistant from a Bunsen burner so that the same amount of thermal
radiation is received by the two cans. Place the cans on a wooden bench to
reduce heat loss by conduction. (wood is a thermal insulator). measure the
temperature of both cans after a certain amount of time. The temperature of the
matt black will be higher than that of the shiny silver as matt black is a good
absorber of infrared radiation.

Q19. Describe how the rate of emission of radiation depends on the surface
temperature and surface area of an object.
All warm objects emit thermal radiation in the form of infrared waves. The
intensity of the emitted radiation depends on:
The temperature of the body (hotter objects emit more thermal radiation)
The surface area of the body ( a larger surface area allows more radiation to
be emitted
Q20. The temperature of the earth is affected by factors controlling the
balance between incoming radiation and radiation emitted from the earth’s
surface. Explain.
The temperature of the earth is affected by factors controlling the balance
between incoming and emitted radiation.
The earth receives the majority of its heat in the form of thermal radiation from
the sun, at the same time the earth emits its own thermal radiation.
Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and reflect back longer wavelength
infrared radiation from the Earth and prevents it from escaping into space.
( if these gases were not in the atmosphere the earth would be cooler because
the thermal radiations will escape). (greenhouse effect )