DIGITAL

ELECTRONICS
 HISTORY
Binary Numbers:
0 1

logic 0 logic 1

False True

Low High

1683 : Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Invented Binary Numbers.

1854 : George Boolean invented Boolean algorithm, also known as
Boolean expansion theorem.
1886 : Charles Sanders Peirce described how logical operations could be
carried out by electrical switching circuits.
1907 : Claude Shannon's expansion theorem, also known as Shannon's
decomposition was invented.
1947 : The First transistor was invented by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain,
and William Shockley at Bell Laboratories, New Jersey, USA. They got
Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on semiconductors and the
discovery of the transistor in 1956.
1953 : Maurice Karnaugh invented Karnaugh Maps also known as K-
maps. A technique used to find Boolean expressions.
1958 : First IC, the JK flip flop was invented by Jack Kilby.
1965 : Gordon Moore first described Moore's Law.
1968 : Intel was established by Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore, in
California USA.
1969 : AMD was established as a start-up in Silicon Valley USA.
 NUMBER SYSTEMS
In digital electronics, number systems are essential for representing and processing data within
digital systems, like computers and microprocessors, where everything is based on binary logic.
Unlike the decimal system, which uses 10 digits (0-9), digital systems primarily operate on the
binary number system, which uses only two digits: 0 and 1.
The main types of number systems in digital electronics are:
1. Binary (Base-2): The fundamental language of computers, using only 0 and 1. Each binary
digit (bit) represents a power of 2, making it highly efficient for digital circuit design.
2. Octal (Base-8): Uses eight symbols (0-7) and is often used as a shorthand for binary since
every octal digit represents three binary digits, simplifying long binary sequences.
3. Decimal (Base-10): The system most familiar to humans, used in everyday counting and
calculations, though less common directly in digital electronics, symbols are (0-9).
4. Hexadecimal (Base-16): Includes sixteen symbols (0-9 and A-F), and is another shorthand
for binary. Each hex digit corresponds to four binary digits, making it very useful for
compactly representing large binary numbers in programming and hardware design.

CONVERSIONS: Generally, three types of conversions, those are:

1. Decimal to Any Base
2. Any base to Decimal
3. Any base to Any base
1. Decimal to Any Base – Divide the Number with the Base and represent remainders from
bottom to up
a. Decimal to Binary
Ex: (25)10 = (11001)2
1. 25÷2=12 remainder 1
2. 12÷2=6 remainder 0
3. 6÷2=3 remainder 0
4. 3÷2=1 remainder 1
5. 1÷2=0 remainder 1
Explanation: 24(1) +23(1) +22(0) +21(0) +20(1)
b. Decimal to Octal
Ex: (80)10 = (120)8
1. 80÷8=10 remainder 0
2. 10÷8=1 remainder 2
3. 1÷8=0 remainder 1
Explanation: 82(1) +81(2) +80(0)
 c. Decimal to Hexa-Decimal
Ex: (57)10 = (39)16
1. 57÷16=3 remainder 9
2. 3÷16=0 remainder 3
Explanation: 161(3) +160(9)

d. Decimal to Base-6
Ex: (76)10 = (204)6
76÷6=12 remainder 4
12÷6=2 remainder 0
2÷6=0 remainder 2
Explanation: 62(2) + 61(0) + 60(4)

2. Any Base to Decimal – Multiply the number with the given base with its respective
weights and add
a. Binary to Decimal
Ex: (1001)2 = (9)10 → 23(1) + 22(0) + 21(0) + 20(1)
b. Octal to Decimal
Ex: (65)8 = (53)10 → 81(6) + 80(5)
c. Hexa-Decimal to Decimal
Ex: (FF)16 = (255)10 → 161(F==15) + 160(F==15)
d. Base-7 to Decimal
Ex: (56)7 = (41)10 → 71(5) + 70(6)

3. Any Base to Any Base – To convert from one base to other One have to Follow two steps
i. Firstly, Convert from any base to decimal
ii. Next, Convert from decimal to the target base

a. Hexa-Decimal to Octal
Ex: (7F)16 = (127)8
Explanation:
Step-1
(7F)16 = (7)161 + (15)160 → (127)10
Step-2
1. 127÷8=15 remainder 7
2. 15÷8=1 remainder 7
3. 1÷8=0 remainder 1
b. Octal to Hexa-Decimal
Ex: (127)8 = (7F)16
 Explanation:
Step-1
(177)8 = (1)82 + (7)81 + (7)80 → (127)10
Step-2
1. 27÷16=7 remainder 15 (which is F in hexadecimal)
2. 7÷16=0 remainder 7
c. Octal to Binary
Ex: (37)8 = (11111)2
Explanation:
Step-1
(37)8 = (3)81 + (7)80→ (31)10
Step-2
1. 31÷2=15 remainder 1
2. 15÷2=7 remainder 1
3. 7÷2=3 remainder 1
4. 3÷2=1 remainder 1
5. 1÷2=0 remainder 1
Shortcut: Write each symbol in 3 bits binary → 37 = (011 111)2

d. Binary to Octal
Ex: (1000101)2 = (105)8
Explanation:
Step-1
(1000101)2 = 26 (1) + 22 (1) + 20 (1) = (69)10
Step-2
1. 69÷8=8 remainder 5
2. 8÷8=1 remainder 0
3. 1÷8= 0 remainder 1
Shortcut: Group Three Bits binary from the LSB → 001 | 000 | 101 =
(105)8
e. Octal to Hexa-Decimal
Ex: (65)8 = (35)16
Group four bits binary from the three bits binary from LSB
(65)8 → 0011 | 0101 = (35)16
f. Hexa-Decimal to Decimal
Ex: (35)16 = (65)8
Group three bits binary from the four bits binary from LSB
(35)16 → 00 | 110 | 101 = (65)8
 For numbers with Fractional Part:-

EX: (19.125)10 = (?)2

a. Divide the Decimal part with base 2 and represent from bottom to up
b. Multiply the Fractional part with base 2 and represent from top to bottom
c. Combine the two results
Decimal Part
19÷2=9 remainder: 1
9÷2 = 4 remainder: 1
4÷2 = 2 remainder: 0
2÷2 = 1 remainder: 0
1÷2 = 0 remainder: 1
Fractional Part
0.125×2 = 0.25(integer part: 0)
0.25×2 = 0.5(integer part: 0)
0.5×2=1.0(integer part: 1)
Combine the result
(10011.001)2

LOGIC GATES:

1. AND Gate
• Symbol:

• Function: Outputs true (1) only if both inputs are true (1).
A B Output (A AND B)

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1
 2. OR Gate
• Symbol:

• Function: Outputs true (1) if at least one input is true (1).

A B Output (A OR B)

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

3. NOT Gate (Inverter)

• Symbol:

• Function: Outputs the opposite of the input.

A Output (NOT A)

0 1

1 0
 4. NAND Gate
• Symbol:

• Function: Outputs false (0) only if both inputs are true (1).
A B Output (A NAND B)

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

5. NOR Gate
• Symbol:

• Function: Outputs true (1) only if both inputs are false (0).
A B Output (A NOR B)

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0
 6. XOR Gate (Exclusive OR)
• Symbol:

• Function: Outputs true (1) if exactly one input is true (1).

A B Output (A XOR B)

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

7. XNOR Gate (Exclusive NOR)

• Symbol:

• Function: Outputs true (1) if both inputs are the same.

A B Output (A XNOR B)

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Summary
• AND: True only if both inputs are true.
• OR: True if at least one input is true.
• NOT: Inverts the input.
• NAND: True unless both inputs are true.
• NOR: True only if both inputs are false.
• XOR: True if exactly one input is true.
• XNOR: True if both inputs are the same.
Principle of Duality:
1) A + 0 =A 6) A.0 =0
2) A + 1 =1 7) A.A =A
3) A + A =A 8) A.A’ =0
4) A + A’ =1 9) (A’)’ =A
5) A.1 = A

Laws :
Commutative law : A + B = B + A, A.B = B.A
Associative law : A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
A.(B.C) = (A.B).C
Distributive law : A + BC = (A+B)(A+C)
A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C
Absorption law : A + AB = A, A(A+B) = A
A + A’B = A+B A(A’ + B) = AB

Demorgan’s Law
1) (A.B)’ = A’ + B’ (Bubbled OR)

2) (A + B)’ = A’.B’ (Bubbled NAND)

Consensus law : Also known as redundancy theorem.
1. 3 variables present.
2. Each variable repeated twice.
3. One variable is complemented.
4. Remove the redundant term where complemented variable is not
present.
AB + A’C + BC = AB + A’C
(A + B)(A’ + C)(B + C) = (A + B)(A’ + C)

SHANNON’S REDUCTION THEOREM:

The Shannon Reduction Theorem is a concept in digital electronics that deals with
the simplification of Boolean functions. Named after Claude Shannon, this theorem
states that any Boolean function can be expressed in a simplified form using a
smaller number of variables by focusing on specific variable assignments.
Shannon Reduction is also known as Decomposition Theorem.

Formula:

F (A, B, C. D) = A’ F (0, B, C. D) + A F (1, B, C. D)

Ex:
F = w1’ w3’ + w1w2 + w1w3
F = w1’ f(1.w3’ + 0.w2 + 0.w3) + w1 f(0.w3’ + 1.w2 + 1.w3)
F = W1’f(w3’) + w1 f(w2 + w3)

2X1 MUX Implementatio

F = w1’w2’f(1.w3’+0.0+w3) + w1’w2f(1.w3’+0.1+0.w3) +
w1w2’f(0.w3’+1.0+1.w3) + w1w2f(0.w3’+1.1+1.w3)
F = w1’w2’f(w3’) + w1’w2f(w3’) + w1w2’(w3) + w1w2(1)

4X! Implementation

Reed Muller Canonical form

Why this technique?
In case of false detection, it is easy to detect fault with cascade X-
OR gate by applying some combination of input.
Rules:
0⊕0=0 A⊕A=0
0⊕1=1 A ⊕ A’ = 1
1⊕0=1 A ⊕ 1 = A’
1⊕1=0 A + B = A ⊕ B ⊕ AB = A ⊕ A’B = B ⊕ B’A

Ex:
Solve the expression F (W, X, Y) = WX + W’Y + X’Y’, using reed
muller (AND+OR)
WX + W’Y + X’Y’ = WX ⊕ (1+W) Y ⊕ (1 ⊕ X) (1 ⊕ Y)
= WX ⊕ Y ⊕ WY ⊕ 1 ⊕ X ⊕ Y ⊕ XY
= WX ⊕ WY ⊕ 1 ⊕ X ⊕ XY

Logic Implementation

Karnaugh Maps:
Also known as K-maps, is a graphical technique for finding a Boolean
expression or simplifying Boolean expressions without using any Boolean
algebra theorems.
Types of K-map
1) 1-variable k-map
a’ a

2) 2- variable k-map 3) 3- variable k-map

4) 4 – variable k-map

Rules for Solving K-map :

1. Grouping may not include any cell containing zero.
2. Grouping can be horizontal or vertical, but not diagonal.
3. Groups must contain 1,2,4,8 or in general 2n cells.
4. Each group should be as large as possible
5. Each cell containing a one must be in atleast one group.
6. Groups may overlap.
7. Groups may wrap around the table.
The implementation of k-maps is done through the Sum of Product
(SOP) and Product of Sum (POS) form followed by Two-variable,
Three-variable, Four-variable, Five-variable K-map and more.

Sum of Product (SOP) :

The logical sum of two or more logical product terms are called sum
of product (SOP).

Ex : Y = AB + CD + EF

Minterms - It is known as the product term. In the minterm, each

uncomplemented term is indicated by ‘1’, and each complemented
term is indicated by ‘0’.
Ex :
A B C Min terms
0 0 0 A’B’C’
0 0 1 A’B’C
0 1 0 A’BC’
0 1 1 A’BC
1 0 0 AB’C’
1 0 1 AB’C
1 1 0 ABC’
1 1 1 ABC

Sum of product terms are represented by

𝒀 = ∑ (𝟎, 𝟓, 𝟔)
𝒎

Y = m0 + m5 + m 6
Y = A’B’C’ + AB’C + ABC’

Product of Sum (POS) :

The logical product of two or more logical sum terms are called
product of sum (POS).

Ex : Y = (A + B)(C+D)(E+F)

Maxterms– It is known as the sum term. In maxterm, each

uncomplemented term is indicated by ‘0’ and each complemented
term is indicated by ‘1’.
Ex :
A B C Max terms
0 0 0 A+B+C
0 0 1 A + B + C’
0 1 0 A + B’ + C
0 1 1 A + B’ + C’
1 0 0 A’ + B + C
1 0 1 A’ + B + C’
1 1 0 A’ + B’ + C
1 1 1 A’ + B’ + C’

Product of sum terms are represented by

Y = ∏𝑚(0,2,4)
Y = m0 + m2 + m4
Y = (A + B + C)( A + B’ + C)( A’ + B + C)