CHAPTER 3

DESIGN THEORY OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR

3.1. Automatic Voltage Regulation System

The automatic voltage regulator (AVR) is widely used in electrical power field
to obtain the stability and good regulation of the electric system. To develop the
electronic control system, the AVR is necessary for the voltage regulation. The
requirement characteristics of alternator output are constant voltage and constant
current. To get the constant output, alternator field excitation is controlled by AVR.
The AVR maintains the constant voltage up to certain level of load current
independently of generator speed and load. Constant voltage at the generator
terminals is essential for satisfactory main power supply. The terminal voltage can be
affected by various distributing factors (speed, load, power, power factor and
temperature rise), so special regulating equipment is required to keep the voltage
constant, when it is affected by these distributing factors. The voltage regulator may
be manually or automatically controlled.
The voltage can be regulated manually by tap-changing switches, a variable
auto-transformer or multi-taps transformer, and an induction regulator. In manual
control, the output voltage is sensed with a voltmeter connected at the output; the
decision and correcting operation is made by a human being. The manual control may
not always be feasible due to various factors and the accuracy can be obtained,
depending on the degree of instrument and giving much better performance so far as
stability.
In modern large interconnected system, manual regulation is not feasible
therefore automatic generation and voltage regulation equipment is installed on each
generator. The AVR may be discontinuous or continuous type. The discontinuous
control type is simpler than the continuous type but it has a dead zone where no signal
is given. Its response time is longer and less accurate.
 The automatic voltage regulator has the ability to monitor continuously its
output voltage and automatically adjusts itself changing taps until designed voltage is
obtained. In function, most regulators come with additional features such as
input/output low continuous type but it has a dead zone where no signal is given. Its
response time is longer and less accurate.
The automatic voltage regulator has the ability to monitor continuously its
output voltage and automatically adjusts itself changing taps until the designed
voltage is obtained. In automatic regulator, all functions are performed by instruments
and given much better performance, so far as stability, speed of correction,
consistency, fatigue, and so on [59Pat].

3.2. Servo Control System

A servo control system is one of the most important and widely used forms of
control system. Any machine or piece of equipment that has rotating parts will contain
one or more servo control systems. The job of the control system may include:
1. Maintaining the speed of a motor within certain limits, even when the
load on the output of the motor might vary. This is called regulation.
2. Varying the speed of a motor and load according to an externally set
programmed of values. This is called set point (or reference) tracking.
Anywhere that there is an electric motor there will be a servo control system to
control it. Servo control is very important. Manufacturing industry would cease
without servo systems because factory production lines could not be controlled,
transportation would halt because electric traction units would fail, computers would
cease because network servers use hard disk drives. Servo control systems are that
important and it is vital to know about them. Figure 3.1 shows open loop control
system.

Figure 3.1. Open Loop Control System

In this system, the controller is the device which activates motion by providing

a command to do something, i.e. start or change speed and position. This command is

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amplified and applied onto the motor. There are several assumptions which have been

made. The first assumption is that power is applied onto the motor and the second is

that the motor shaft is free to rotate. Systems that assume motion has taken place are

termed “open loop”. An open loop drive is one which the signal goes in one direction

only from the control to the motor. There is no signal returning from the motor/load to

inform the control that motion has occurred. If a signal is returned to provide

information that motion has occurred, then the system is described as having a signal

which goes in two directions. Closed loop control system is shown in Fig. 3.2.

Figure 3.2. Close Loop Control System

The command signal goes out (to move the motor), and a signal is returned

(the feedback) to the control to inform the control of what has occurred. The

information flows back, or returns. The weakness of the open loop approach include:

it is not good for applications with varying loads, its energy efficiency level is low

and it has resonance areas which must be avoided. These require control over a

variety of complex motion profiles. These may involve the following: control of

either velocity and or position; high resolution and accuracy; velocity may be either

very slow, or very high; and the application may demand high torques in a small

package size.

In many applications, whether the open loop or closed loop techniques

employed often comes down to the basic decision of the user and the approach with

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which is most knowledgeable. Servo use feedback signals for stabilization, speed and

position information. This information may come from a variety of devices [04Mat].

3.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System

Its advantages are:
1. Open loop control systems represent the simplest and most economical
type of control system.
2. Maintenance of the equipment is not difficult because complicated
electronic circuitry is not involved.
3. It is less expensive than closed loop control: it is not necessary to
measure the actual result.
4. Proper calibration is not a problem as the operation of the system is fully
controlled by a human operator.
Its disadvantages are:
1. Open loop control system is slow because they are manually controlled.
A human being is not efficient enough to control several parameters
simultaneously and taking decisions and initiative action in a short
interval of time.
2. Optimization in control is not possible in these types of systems.
3. It would be much less load sensitive.
4. Only a few variables can be introduced in these systems.
5. Errors caused by unexpected disturbances are not corrected.
6. All errors and changes result in a charging and inaccurate output
[04Mat].

3.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Close Loop Control System

Its advantages are:
1. Feedback action compensates for small error in the plant model.
2. Feedback action tends to nullify disturbances of unknown origin.
3. Feedback is the potential for more accurate control of the process.
4. Corrective action begins as soon as the output deviates from the
command input.
5. They are more reliable than a human operator.

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 6. The effects of disturbances are minimized.
Its disadvantages are:
1. Since the system response relies on the error between the controlled
variable at the output and input command, perfect control is
unachievable.
2. To maintain small errors, large gain and considerable control activity is
required, which can led to system stability problems
3. When plants have long time constants, external disturbances may be
cause large output errors for long periods.
4. Installation and adjustment is intricate [04Mat].

3.5. The Components of Regulator

The automatic voltage regulator consists of the following main parts;
1. Variable Autotransformer
2. Buck- boost Transformer
3. Control Circuit
4. Servo Motor

3.6. General Theory of Transformer

The transformer is widely used as a device for changing voltage and current
relations in AC electric circuits without serious loss in the transformation process.
Transformer is important because the many useful functions the transformer performs
in prominent areas of electrical engineering. The transformer is a static (or stationary)
piece of apparatus and it is used electric to transformer power in one circuit to electric
power of the same frequency in another circuit.
It can raise or lower voltage in a circuit but decrease or increase current. The
basic of a transformer in mutual induction is between two circuits linked by a
common magnetic flux. In its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which
are electrically separated by magnetically through a path of low reluctance as shown
in Fig. 3.3.
The two coils are connected to a source and load of AC system. An alternating
flux is set up in the laminated core most of which produces mutually-induced
electromotive force. If the second coil circuit is closed a current flows in it and so

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electric energy is transferred from the first coil to the second coil. The first coil
electric energy is fed from AC supply mainly is called primary winding and the other
from which energy is drawn out is called secondary winding.
Thus, the primary winding is the input winding and the secondary winding is
the output winding. The transformer is a device for stepping up or stepping down the
voltage or current in an AC circuit. As a step-up transformer receives energy at one
voltage and current and delivers practically the same amount of energy at a higher
voltage and lower current. As a step-down transformer the action is reversed, and the
delivery is at reduced voltage and increased current [14Kir].

Laminated Core

Primary Secondary

Figure 3.3. Illustration of Transformer Principle

The transformer most frequently encountered is of the constant-potential type,

which is designed to maintain a practically constant secondary current, while the so
called current transformer is designed to reduce line currents for metering purposes,
while at the same time insulating the instruments from the high-voltage line.

3.7. Variable Autotransformer

Variable autotransformer range of adjustable auto-wound units gives high
quality operation in terms of both electrical performance and mechanical reliability.
These transformers are much smaller than resistive controllers of equal power rating,
do not waste power in the form of heat and do not affect either wave form purity or
power factor. Most variable transformers are used as ‘auto-transformers’ permitting
units to be wired in a configuration yielding a higher voltage out than applied as input

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voltage. Variable autotransformers are used for continuous adjustment of alternating
voltages and currents under load between zero and maximum value.
This variable autotransformer is designed from the principal of a transformer.
The structure functions in such a way that special brush slides on the ring iron core of
an orderly wound oriented silicon steel to which single layer wire is applied and along
which a part of the insulation is removed. The movement of the brush has the effect of
changing the tap of the transformer enabling the output voltage to change from zero to
maximum continuously.

3.7.1. Operation of Variable Autotransformer

Variable autotransformer is a continuously variable voltage transformer,
having a single layer winding on a toroidal core. On one face of the copper winding,
along the periphery, a special durable contact surface is made. A specially designed
carbon brush slides smoothly on the surface. For the control of the contact arm for a
remote point, or automatic control of the output voltage, variable autotransformer can
be made with a motor drive. The motor is coupled to the central shaft of the variable
autotransformer and as motor rotates, the contact arm moves over the plated surface.
The rotation of the motor can be reversed by interchanging the motor connection
[09Met].

3.7.2. Features of the Variable Autotransformer

The features of the variable autotransformer are as follow:
1. Voltage control (current) is smooth.
2. It varies its operation continuously to adapt to a fluctuating input
voltage.
3. It has a superior regulation property.
4. It has highly efficient.
5. It is a small sized unit.
6. The voltage characteristic is linear.
7. It is possible to boost or buck the voltage.

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 8. The temperature rises slowly.
9. The smaller the power loss, the slower the temperature rises.
10. It is a strong machine.
11. It can be applied to multi-phase circuit.
12. It can provide output higher than supply.
13. It is sine wave output.
14. It can be servo-controlled.
15. It has unity power factor.
3.7.3. Application of Variable Autotransformer
Figure 3.4 shows the connection diagram of a single-phase variable
autotransformer. Variable transformers are applied to various products or applications
including the following:
1. Power supplies
2. Laboratory and test equipment
3. Speed control devices
4. Computer peripheral equipment
5. Welding controls
6. Variable speed devices for large machinery
7. Electroplating and anodizing
8. High-voltage electronic tube circuits
9. Spare supply regulators in broadcast transmitters
10. Voltage stabilizers
11. High voltage test set
12. Meter test bench
13. Hydro generation plants
14. Battery chargers
15. DC motor controls
16. Plastic blow molding machines
17. Control of furnace transformers
18. Lightening regulation
19. Laboratory stirrers
20. AC, DC brush motors

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 21. High current motorized voltage regulators
22. High current plastic plating operations [09Met].

Figure 3.4. Connection Diagram of a Single-phase Variable Autotransformer (Variac)

A variable autotransformer has a winding wound on a toroidal core. A thick
carbon brush makes contact with the winding in the desired position. The output
voltage can be varied from zero up to say 120% of the input voltage. The connection
diagram of a single-phase variable autotransformer is as shown in Fig. 3.4. Variacs or
variable autotransformers are used for making available ac voltage from fixed supply
voltage.

3.7.4. Advantages of Variable Autotransformer

Variable autotransformers are designed for heavy duty trouble free operations.
All components are designed to give maximum life to the unit under extreme
operating conditions. The drop in voltage from no load to full load is minimal in
variable transformers.
1. High Efficiency: careful copper core selection and design assures the
user of low watt loss as compared to other types of controllers.
2. No Waveform Distortion: variable autotransformer provides an output
voltage wave from which is a faithful and distortion less replica of the
input voltage waveform.
3. Overload Capacity: because of its careful designing, variable
autotransformer can withstand many overloads.
4. Low Operating Torque: a glass smooth commutator, special brushings
for the shaft and perfect assembling of the coils, result in low operating
torque for autotransformers. Smooth and linear output: as voltage
between turns is small and as the brush arm is in constant contact with
more than one turn, harmful sparkling is avoided and output can be set

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 very easily to a fraction of a volt from zero onwards by rotation of the
knob.
5. Low Magnetic Current: by using an adequate section of the high
quality grain oriented silicon steel, the iron losses are controlled to the
minimum. The no load current is invariably less than 1% of the rated
current.
6. Negligible Maintenance and Trouble Free Long Life: Variable
autotransformers have been designed to guarantee performance.
Therefore, no special care needs to be taken in normal working
conditions. Timely replacement of carbon tips and cleaning of the
commutator surface of foreign particles and accumulated dust will
ensure a considerably long, maintenance free and interrupted life to
unit.
3.8. Buck-boost Transformer
Utilization voltages that are too high or low may be corrected through the use
of buck-boost transformer. These are special purpose two-winding transformers
whose winding are connected for use as autotransformer. The low voltage output of
the secondary is added to the line voltage (boost condition) or subtracted from the line
voltage (buck condition) to obtain the desired utilization voltage.
Their main function is to adjust a line voltage by a small amount (normally 5%
to 25%) to match the load voltage. They are commonly used in applications that
require boosting and bucking of line voltage from 120 V to 240 V. Buck-boost
transformers represent an economical way to both raise supply voltage caused by line
drop or equipment demand on the distribution system, or lower voltage caused by
increased system voltages due to supply line adjustments. Some loads including
lighting and resistive loads require a stable supply to maintain performance. The
detrimental effects of incorrect supply line voltage can cause equipment failure.
Buck-boost transformers can correct line voltage within 5 to 25% of nominal
voltage. These transformers are insulating transformers that have 120 × 240 V
primaries and either 12/24 or 16/32 V secondary as shown in Fig. 3.5. When buck-
boost transformer used as insulating transformers, they carry the full load stated on
the nameplate. Their primary use and value is that the primary and secondary of a
buck and boost transformer can be interconnected for use as an autotransformer. By

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varying the two primary windings and two secondary windings connection, numerous
voltage ratios and current ratings can be obtained.

H1 X1
120 V 12 V (or 16 V)
H2 X2

H3 X3
120 V 12 V (or 16 V)
H4 X4

Figure 3.5. Buck-boost Transformer

3.8.1. Application of Buck-boost Transformer
The buck-boost transformer has four separate windings, two-windings in the
primary and two-windings in the secondary. The unit is designed for use as an
insulating transformer or as an autotransformer. As an autotransformer unit can be
connected to buck (decrease) or boost (increase) a supply voltage. When connected in
either the buck or boost mode, the unit is no longer an insulating transformer. Units
are designed for 50 Hz applications.
Autotransformers are more economical and physically smaller than equivalent
two-winding transformers and are designed to carry the same function as two-winding
transformer, with the exception of isolating two circuits. Since autotransformers may
transmit line disturbances directly, they may be prohibited in some areas by local
building codes. Before applying them, care should be taken to assure that they are
acceptable according to local code. Autotransformers are not used in closed delta
connections as they introduce into the circuit a phase shift which makes them
uneconomical.

3.8.2. Operation of Buck-boost Transformer

Electrical and electronic equipment is designed to operate on a standard
supply voltage. When the supply voltage is constantly too high or too low, the
equipment will fail to operate at maximum efficiency. The amount of buck or boost
depends on the value of the voltage applied to the primary of the buck-boost

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transformer. The output voltage depends on the position of the carbon brush with
respect to tap X as shown in Fig. 3.6. If the brush to the tap Y, the induced voltage in
the secondary of the buck-boost transformer bucks the input voltage by a certain
amount, resulting in output lower than the desired output. When the brush moves up
towards the tap X, the primary voltage of the buck-boost transformer becomes lower
and lower, and so does the amount of bucking. This increases the output voltage
gradually.
If the brush reaches tap X, the primary voltage becomes zero and there is no
induced voltage across the secondary of the buck-boost transformer. At this instant,
the input voltage equals the output voltage. As the brush moves with respect to tap X,
the amount of voltage applied to the primary starts increasing in reverse order and so
does the induced voltage in the secondary. As a result, the voltage induced in the
secondary adds to the input voltage and the output voltage becomes lager than the
input. The output voltage continues increasing as the brush moves from the bottom of
the variable autotransformer can be used to buck or boost the output voltage by a
continuous adjustable amount. In a servo-control automatic voltage stabilizer, the
brush is controlled by a servo motor which is actuated by an electronic circuit.
Figure 3.6 shows the winding diagram of a buck-boost control for single-phase.

Bust-boost Transformer

Variable X
Autotransformer 220 V
Y

Figure 3.6. Winding Diagram of a Buck-boost Control for Single-phase

3.5.3. Selection of Buck-boost Transformer

The following information is required before selecting a buck-boost
transformer:

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 (1) Line Voltage - The voltage that you want to buck (decrease) or boost
(increase). This can be determined by measuring the supply line voltage
with a voltmeter.
(2) Load Voltage - The voltage at which your equipment is designed to
operate. This is listed on the nameplate of the load equipment.
(3) Load kVA or Load Amps - You do not need to know both - one or the
other is sufficient. This information usually can be found on the
nameplate of the equipment that you want to operate. It is the sum of all
the equipment that represents the load.
(4) Frequency - The supply line frequency must be the same as the
equipment to be operated - either 50 or 60 Hz.
(5) Phase - The supply line should be the same as the load - either single or
three phase.
3.9. Short-circuit and Overload Protection
Automatic voltage stabilizers are not short-circuit proof and must not be
overload. Within the limits or their adjustment range, they reduce the internal
resistance of the mains supply, so that high short-circuit currents can be expected on
the output side. Carefully selected fuses protect against short-circuits on the output
side, thermic, miniature circuit breaker (MCB) or electronically acting trip switches
can be provided for overload protection. The over voltage protection consists of
miniature circuit breaker (MCB) inserted on the input terminal. This device protects
the over voltage or the over current in the supplying line or on output.
It should be also noted that the power networks with lower capacity, the higher
currents occurring at low input voltage result in an additional voltage drop, which the
control can no longer equalize.
Thermal protection can be built on to toroidal transformers in the form of
thermal sensitive fuses; limit switches and switches (thermostats). These protectors
are generally built inline into primary winding, and are in close limit switch with the
windings. Thermal fuses are not resettable and once blown cannot be replaced.
Thermal switch are designed to open at a set temperature and will close again upon
cooling, reforming the primary circuit (with slight hysteresis). These protectors may
be required to satisfy certain safety approvals. Specified protection can be added in

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the form of normally open switches, as well as incorporation into specific windings.
Thermal protection always adds to the cost of toroidal and can affect the transformer
geometry slightly.

3.10. Main components of Servo Motor Drive for AVS

Servo control system consists of
1. PIC 16F887A Microcontroller
2. Bridge Rectifier
3. Capacitor
4. Variable Resistor
5. Zener Diode
6. Transformer
3.10.1. PIC 16F887A Microcontroller
Microcontrollers are widely used in today’s control system. A nice and much
cheaper alternative is to use a microcontroller, which is usually less expensive and has
all the capabilities needed for an application. The microcontroller is the most
appropriate requirement of this system. PIC 16F877A is one of the most commonly
used microcontrollers especially in automotive, industrial, appliances and consumer
applications. PIC 16F877A is at the upper end of the mid-range series of the
microcontrollers developed by microchip. It is a computer on chip used to control
electronic device. PIC microcontroller is to provide the system reading the signal
from the sensor during the operation and sending the data. Moreover, it can be
also used to control the motor driver that holds the motor to turn left, turn right and
stop.
Moreover it needs six input/output pins to control LCD display. It has 40 pins
and 5 input-output (I/O) ports. Port A consists of 8 pins which can be set up as either
digital I/O or analog inputs. Port B is an 8-pin port which can be used for both digital
I/O operations and in-circuit debugger (ICD) operations. Port C, on the other hand, is
a 5-pin multi-functional port, which can be used for digital I/O, as capture-compare
(CCP) input, or pulse-width modulation (PWM) output. Since PIC 16F877A has
enough input/ output pins for this system. Therefore PIC 16F877A is the most suitable
for this system. PIC 16F877A Microcontroller is shown in Fig. 3.7.

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 Figure 3.7. PIC16F877A Microcontroller

There are 40 pins on PIC 16F877A. Most of them can be used as an I/O pin.
Others are for specific functions. V DD is the positive supply and V SS is the negative
supply or 0 V. The maximum supply voltage that you can use is 6 V and the minimum
is 2 V. Master clear (reset) input pin is an active low to the device. This pin is used to
erase the memory locations inside the PIC (i.e. when it is wanted to re-program it).
Pin layout of PIC 16F887A microcontroller is shown in Fig. 3.8.

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 Figure 3.8. Pin Layout of PIC 16F887A Microcontroller

Where; VSS = Ground

VDD = Power

3.10.2. Features of PIC 16F887A microcontroller

1. Architecture : 8 bit
2. Program Memory (Flash) : 14 kB (8 kWords)
3. RAM : 368 byte
4. EEPROM : 256 byte
5. Pin : 40 (Pin I/O : 36)
6. Max. CPU frequency : 20 MHz (5MIPS)
7. Internal Oscillator : 8 MHz, 32 kHz
8. 10-bit 14 channel Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Converter
9. 2 Analog Comparator modules

3.10.3. Peripherals of PIC 16F887A microcontroller

1. A/D Converters : 1 (14 channels)
2. Capacitive Touch Channels : 11
3. Comparators :
4. CCP Module : 1 × CCP, 1 × ECCP, 10-bit PWM resolutions
5. Timers : 2 × 8-bit, 1 × 16-bit

3.10.4. Input output ports

PIC 16F887A have five I/O ports, port A, B, C, D and E. Some pins for these
I/O ports are multiplexed with an alternate function for the peripheral features on the
device. In general, when a peripheral is enabled, that pin may not use as a general
purpose I/O pin. In this system, Port A, Port C and Port D are used as input/output
pins.

3.11. Bridge Rectifier

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 Rectifiers are diodes used to change AC to DC. The output waveform is a
pulsating DC wave. This waveform can then be filtered to remove the unwanted
variations. Output waveform of bridge rectifier is shown in Fig. 3.9.

Input - AC Output – pulsating DC

Diode
+ –

Figure 3.9. Output Waveform of Bridge Rectifier

Rectifiers are widely used in power supplies that provide the DC voltage
necessary for almost all active devices to work. The three basic rectifier circuits are
the half-wave, the center-tapped full-wave, and full-wave bridge rectifier circuits.
The most important parameters for choosing diodes for these circuit are the maximum
forward current, If and the peak inverse voltage rating (PIV) of the diode. Full-wave
bridge rectifiers are more commonly used than half-wave rectifier. Figure 3.10 shows
rectifier circuit.

Figure 3.10. Rectifier Circuit

3.12. Capacitor
Capacitors are electronic components that store, filter and regulate electrical
energy and current flow and are one of the essential passive components used in
circuit boards. Capacitors are primarily used for storing electrical charges, conducting

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AC, and blocking or separating different voltages levels of DC source. Figure 3.11
shows the basic structure of a capacitor.

Conductive
Parallel Plates Electrical
Q+ Q– Charge

Dielectric
Symbol

Voltage Vc

Figure 3.11. Basic Structure of a Capacitor

Capacitors can be divided in two basic groups: electrostatic capacitors and

electrolytic capacitors. Electrostatic capacitors are symmetrical non-polar
constructions. Materials such as plastic film and ceramic are used as the dielectric,
while a variety of metals are used as electrodes. Since these parts are not polarized,
they can generally be inserted into a circuit without regard to which points the
terminals are connected. Electrolytic capacitors are asymmetric and polarized
construction. Electrolytic capacitors utilize an electrolyte which may maintain the
dielectric layer and also create the negative connection, or cathode. Metal foils or
powders, such as aluminum and tantalum, are used to form the positive connection
(anode). The dielectric layer is created by forming a thin oxide on the metal anode.
All capacitors are formed with the same basic structure. Two parallel metal
electrode plates are separated by a non-conductive material called the dielectric.
When a voltage exists between these conductive parallel plates, an electric field is
present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the plates. The value of a capacitor is designated in units called the Farad (F).

3.13. Variable Resistor

Variable resistors, or rheostats, have a resistance that may be varied across a
certain range, usually by means of a mechanical device that alters the position of one
terminal of the resistor along a strip of resistant material. The length of the

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intervening material determines the resistance. Mechanical variable resistors are also
called potentiometers, and are used in the volume knobs of audio equipment and in
many other devices.

3.14. Zener Diode

This zener diode is used in voltage regulator to maintain a constant voltage
across a varying load. Unlike the rectifier diode, a zener diode is designed to operate
in reverse conduction. Zener breakdown occurs at a precisely defined voltage,
allowing the diode to be used as a voltage reference or clipper. While zener diodes are
usually operated in reverse conduction, they may also be operated in cutoff and
forward conduction. If the voltage applied across a zener diode is lower than its break
down voltage the zener break down voltage the zener current remains very small till
its break down voltage. When break down occurs the resistance of zener decreases to
leap the voltage across it at constant for the input voltages of higher value.

3.15. Design Equation

The design of the magnetic circuit (main dimensions of core, yoke and
window), following equations are needed.
1. E.M.F equation
2. E.M.F per turn in terms of output
3. Output equation

3.15.1. E.M.F Equation

When the alternating voltage is applied across the primary of the transformer,
it takes a magnetizing current and a flux; φ is established in the transformer core. The
flux, φ is uniformly distributed over the transformer core section and is linked with all
the turns of primary and secondary windings. The main flux, φ established in the core
is alternating in nature. Hence an E.M.F is induced in the primary winding, due to the
dφ
change of main flux, which is given by, e1 = – N1dt
(3.1)

φ=φ m cosω t (3.2)

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 −N 1 d (φ m cosω t )
e1 = dt
= N1 ω φm sin ω t
E1max = N1 ω φm
(or) r.m.s value of induced e.m.f. ,
N 1 (2π f )φm
E1 = √2
(or) E1 = 4.44 f N1φm volts (3.3)

E1 = 4.44 f N1Bm Ai volts (where φm = BmAi ) (3.4)

Induced e.m.f. in secondary winding,
E2 = 4.44 f N2Bm Ai volts (3.5)
E.m.f per turn,
Et = 4.44 f Bm Ai (3.6)
Where, E = applied phase voltage
f = supply frequency
N = number of turns
Bm = maximum value of the flux density

Ai = cross-sectional area of core

3.15.2. E.M.F per Turn

e.m.f per turn,
Et = 4.44 f φm (3.7)
K.V.A rating per phase,
E = V × I × 10-3
V
= N × IN × 10-3
= Et × IN × 10-3 (3.8)

The ratio of cross-sectional area of the core and the copper area of the windings will
be constant for a particular transformer i.e.

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 Ai
A c = constant (3.9)
Cross sectional area of core,

φm
Ai = B m or (3.10)

√P
Ai = 5. 58 sq. in (3.11)

Copper area of the windings,

I
Ac = a N = δ × N

Ai δ
ϕm
A c = IN × B m

= constant

As current density, δ and flux density, Bm is nearly constant,

∅m
= constant = r
IN
∅m
IN =
r

(3.12)

Substituting for IN from Equation 4.12 into Equation 4.8,

kVA ∅m
phase = Et × r × 10-3

kVA
( )×r
phase
(or) φm= Et × 103 (3.13)

Substituting for φm from Equation 4.13 into Equation 4.7,

kVA
( )×r
phase
Et = 4.44 f ×
Et × 103

`
 kVA
Et2 = (4.44 f r × 103) × phase

e.m.f per turn,

4.44 Bm Ne f Ai
Et = 3 volt (3.14)
10

Et = K √( kVA/phase)
Where K = √ 4.44 f r × 1 03 (3.15)

In order to utilize equation 4.12, for finding out the e.m.f. per turn, the value
of the factor, K is needed. And then, the turns per volt will be got.
3
Turns per volt, Ne = E t ×1 0 (3.16)
4.44 Bm f Ai

Where, E = value of the applied phase voltage

E t = e.m.f. per turn
f = supply frequency
N = number of turns
Bm = value of the flux density

Ai = area of core
∅ m = flux
δ = current density

3.15.3. Factor K
Factor, K which basically depends upon the ratio of cross-sectional area of
core to the copper section of the windings, will be different for two types of
transformers i.e. core and shell. For the identical transformers, shell type will require
more magnetic material than the core type. As a result, the factor, K will be higher for
shell type compared to core type of transformers.
A single-phase core type transformer will require more magnetic material than
a three-phase core type on per phase basis. Hence the factor, K will be higher for
single phase core type transformers compared to three-phase core type transformers
[96Bho]. The value of factor K with respect to transformer type is shown in Table 4.1.

`
Table 4.1. Constant K with Respect to Transformer Type
Type K (Factor)
(1) Single phase core 0.75-0.8
(2) Single phase shell 1.0-1.1
(3) Three phase core (power) 0.6-0.65
(4) Three phase core (distribution) 0.45-0.5
(5) Three phase shell 1.2-1.3

3.15.4. Stacking Factor (Ks)

To get the required core section, the transformer core is prepared by stacking
together thin sheets of laminations. These laminations are insulated on both sides
usually by spray of varnish. That, the assembled core includes the area of insulation as
well. The gross core section A gi, is related with the net core section, A i, by a factor Ks
called stacking factor.

Thus, Ai = KsAgi (3.17)

Where Ks = stacking factor, usually value is 0.85 ~ 0.9.

3.15.5. Flux Density (Bm)

The voltage equation as well as output equation indicates that the higher value

of flux density Bm is chosen, the core area Ai reduces. This will reduce the diameter of

circle there by reducing the length of mean turn. The choice of B m will also depends

upon the type, service conditions of the transformer. It has already been pointed out

that a distribution transformer should be designed for lower iron losses giving good

all-day efficiency. Therefore, for distribution transformer comparatively lower flux

density is assumed.

`
 Using hot rolled silicon steel,

Power transformers - 1.2 to 1.4 Tesla

Distribution transformers - 1.1 to 1.3 Tesla

Using cold rolled grain-oriented silicon steel,

Power transformers - 1.5 to 1.7 Tesla

Distribution transformers - 1.4 to 1.5 Tesla

Lower values should be used for small rating transformers.