Anatomy Lab

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‫‪Anatomy‬‬

‫‪Lab 1‬‬

‫م‪.‬م‪ .‬رشا ابجد سلمان‬


Introduction
Overview of Anatomy
Anatomical terminology from ancient Greek and Latin
Branches of anatomy
• Gross anatomy
• Microscopic anatomy
• Cytology
• Histology
• Developmental anatomy
• Embryology
• Comparative anatomy
Structural organization from simplest to most
complex

• Cellular
• Tissue – group of cells similar in structure and
function
• Organ – 2 or more tissue types performing specific
function
• Organ system – group of organs acting together to
perform specific function
• Human organism
Organ systems

 Integumentary  Lymphatic/immune
 Skeletal  Respiratory
 Muscular  Digestive
 Nervous  Urinary
 Endocrine  Reproductive
 Cardiovascular
Gross Anatomy
The anatomical position (see right)
Body planes and sections
Directional and regional terms

 Anterior  Superficial
 Posterior  Deep
 Superior  Cephalic
 Inferior  Vertebral
 Medial  Thoracic
 Lateral  Appendicular
 Proximal  Brachial
 Distal  Lumbar
Microscopic anatomy
Histology
• Microscopic examination of the fine structure of
organs, tissues and cells
• Tissues are prepared by fixation and then cut into
thin sections

Developmental anatomy:
embryology later

Comparative anatomy
Different animals
Terms Related to Movement
A site where two or more bones come together is
known as a joint. Some joints have no movement
(sutures of the skull), some have only slight movement
(superior tibiofibular joint), and some are freely
movable (shoulder joint).
The Cell
Basic Unit of Structure and Function
structural and functional units of all living organisms, building
blocks of the human body. adult human body contains ~ 75
trillion cells.
Each cell type performs specific function.
~200 cell types in humans

Study of Cells
Cytology: study of cells
Microscopic anatomy
Individual cells observable by light microscopy
Subcellular structures observable by electron microscopy.
Transmission EM
Scanning EM
Parts of a cell
Cell Membrane (or plasma membrane)
Cytoplasm (Cytosol and Organelles)
Nucleus
Plasma (Cell) Membrane
separates the internal contents of the cell from external
materials.
Cytoplasm
general term for all cellular contents located between the
plasma membrane and the nucleus.
Nucleus
“control center” of the cell
controls protein synthesis
Plasma membrane
Plasma membrane: composition
Lipids
Phospholipids
Head: hydrophilic
Tail: hydrophobic
Form lipid bilayer
Cholesterol
Glycolipids
Carbohydrate component
Part of glycocalyx
Protein
Integral membrane proteins
Peripheral membrane proteins
Plasma membrane: functions
Selectively permeable barrier
Nutrient in
Waste out
Cytoplasm: Organelles
Complex, organized structures, Each type performs a different
function for the cell.
Include:
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
Smooth Endoplamic Reticulum (SER)
Golgi
Mitochondria
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
Have ribosomes and make protein
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
Lipids and carbohydrates
Detoxification
Golgi Apparatus
Modifies, stores and sorts material from RER
Receiving region (cis-face)
Shipping region (trans-face)
Produces Lysosomes
Autophagy: removal of old organelles
Autolysis: destruction of the cell
Mitochondria
are with double membrane organelles. Produce large
amounts of ATP. Are called the “powerhouses” of the cell.
Ribosomes
Small, dense granules contain Protein and RNA
Site of protein synthesis. Each ribosome has a small and a large
subunit.
Cytoskeleton
Made of filamentous proteins
Helps give the cell its shape and Cell movement
Three categories:
- microfilaments
- intermediate filaments
- microtubules
Microvilli, Cilia and Flagella
Appendages extending from the surface of some cells.
Microvilli:
short, cytoplasmic extensions
For absorption
Cilia:
occur in large numbers and work together to move
materials or fluids along the surface of a cell.
Flagella:
longer than cilia, occur as single appendages and Move the
cell
Nucleus
Control center of cellular activities. it is the largest structure within
the cell and appears as a single spherical or oval structure.

•Enclosed by a double membrane called nuclear envelope:


controls the entry and exit of materials between the nucleus and
the cytoplasm.
•may contain one or more nucleoli.
•are responsible for making the small and the large subunits of
ribosomes.
Chromatin and DNA
DNA :
is the genetic material housed within nucleus. is a
polymer of nucleotides :
sugar, phosphate and nitrogen base
Is a double helix.
Chromatin:
Strands of DNA and histone proteins
- Euchromatin: uncoiled; active
- Heterochromatin: coiled. inactive
Chromosome
is the most organized level of genetic material. Each chromosome
contains a single, long molecule of DNA and associated proteins.
become visible only when cell is dividing.
Tissue
Tissue are grouping of similar cells with a common or
related function.
Tissue types
1- epithelial tissue ---- covering
2- connective tissue ---- support and defense
3- nervous tissue ----- control
4- muscle tissue ------ movement
Epithelial tissue

Divide According to the number of cells layers we have :-


Simple epithelial tissue.
Stratified epithelial tissue.

According to the shape of cells we have :-


Squamous epithelial tissue.
Cuboidal epithelial tissue.
Columnar epithelial tissue.
Pseudostratified epithelial tissue
1-Simple Squamous epithelial tissue
It ’s a single layer of than , flat , polygonal cell , each with a central
nucleus.
EX:- endothelium that lines blood vessels
2-Simple cuboidal epithelial tissue .
It ’s a single layer of cube – shaped cells , each with a central
spherical nucleus , its found in kidney tubules and in ducts of many
gland
3- Simple Columnar epithelial tissue .
It ’s a single layer of tall , cylindrical cell , each with a nucleus near
the base , this tissue . which lines the digestive tract from the
stomach to the anus.
• Simple cuboidal epithelial tissue
• Simple columnar epithelium: surface of stomach.
4- Pseudo stratified epithelial tissue .
It ’s so called because the nuclei appear to lie in various layers ex:
respiratory tract
1- Stratified Squamous epithelial tissue
cells from many layers : cuboidal or columnar in shape while the
cells closer to the surface are irregular in shape and flatten found
in skin, esophagus.
• Pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium:
respiratory passages—trachea
Stratified Squamous non- keratinized
epithelium: esophagus
2- Stratified cuboidal epithelial tissue
In which , the cells in the outer most layers are cubical in shape its
present in the duct of sweat gland
3- Stratified columnar epithelial tissue
The cell in the surface layer are columnar in shape ex: salivary
glands.
4-Transitional epithelial tissue
It ,s characterized by the surface layer of dome like cells lines the
urinary bladder and the ureter
transitional epithelium: Transitional epithelium: bladder
bladder (unstretched or (stretched).
relaxed).
Connective tissue
Its support and protect , consist of :-
*cells (Fibroblast, Plasma cell, Adipose cell, Melanocyte and
pigment cell,Reticular cell)
* fibers (White ( collagenous ) fibers , Yellow ( elastic ) fibers,
Reticular fibers )
* Ground substance (homogenous, random, in shape may be
viscous, semisolid or solid)

TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 Proper connective tissue


• Loose connective tissue ( low concentration of fibers)
Areolar con . t Mucoid con . t Reticular con .t
lung ,heart its found in umbilical its found in lymph node
cord.

Adipose con. T Mesenchymal con . t


found in the skin
• Dense connective tissue
1-Irregular connective tissues (it can be seen in the
dermis of skin)
2- Regulars connective tissues (tendon)

Special connective tissue


- bone connective tissue
- Cartilage
And blood of vascular C.T
• Dense irregular connective tissue and adipose
tissue.
Dense regular connective tissue:
tendon (longitudinal section)
Muscular Tissue
Muscular tissue composed of specialized cell (fiber ) for producing
movement body . we can classify muscular tissue according to the
function and structure to:-
Smooth muscle Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle
its non – striated , its striated its striated ,
involuntary muscle voluntary muscle involuntary muscle
ex:- esophagus to *its attached to ex:- muscles layer of
anus , urinary skeletal back bone . heart
system
Nervous tissue
Is responsible for transport nervous impulse ( motor and sensory
impulse )
Nerve cell ( neurons ) :- are responsible for reception transmission
and processing of stimuli and release neurotransmitters and are
consist of :-
Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
What is the heaviest organ in the
body?

What is the largest organ in the


body?
Skin
The skin is a large organ responsible
for:
*temperature regulation
*protection of underlying tissues
*Slowing the rate of water loss
*housing sensory receptors
*excreting wastes
*vitamin D formation
Skin (integument)
It is the heaviest organ in the body (16% of body
weight, 1.2 - 2.3 m2 of body surface area).
Parts:
*Epidermis (Epithelium) – ectoderm.
*Dermis (C. T. ) – Mesoderm
*Hypodermis ( subcutaneous tissue).
*Skin appendages
*Accessory glands
Structure of the Skin
it consists of two major layers:
*outer, thinner layer called the
epidermis, consists of epithelial tissue
*inner, thicker layer called the dermis
*Beneath the dermis is a subcutaneous
layer ( also called hypodermis) which
attaches the skin to the underlying
tissues and organs
DERMO-EPIDERMAL JUNCTION
The boundaries between dermis and epidermis is
irregular projection of the dermis called papillae
inter-digitate with evaginations of the epidermis
known as epidermal peg.
Epidermis
The epidermis contains four major layers (thin
skin) or five major layers (thick skin)
*Stratum basale (deepest layer) or
stratum germinativum
*Stratum spinosum,
*Stratum granulosum,
*Stratum lucidum,
*Stratum corneum.
1.Stratum Germinativum /Basale;
(a) Keratinocyte , cuboidal – columnar, lie on a
Basal lamina.
(b) Desmosomes, and hemidesmosomes.
( C ) indented by CT dermal papillae.
(d)Cells proliferate to replace lost surface cells.
(high mitotic activity , renewal ~ 15 -30 days ).
(e) Merkel cells
( f) Melanocytes
2. Stratum Spinosum

( a ) 4 – 10 rows,
Cuboidal –
flattened cells
(Keratinocytes)
( b) Central nucles
( c) Langerhans cells
3 . Stratum Granulosum;
( a ) 3 – 5 rows, flattened polygonal cells
( b) EM; lamellar granules
( c) Desmosomes
4. stratum
lucidum
( a) in thick skin
only
( b) Translucent
( c) Tightly packed
cells that lack
nuclei or
organelles (dead)
( d) Desmosomes
5. stratum corneum
( a ) 15 – 20 rows of flattened , dead cells
( b) continually shed and replaced
[ 15 – 30 days for a cell to move from the
stratum germinativum to the stratum
corneum ]
Cells of epidermis:
1-Keratinocyte
2-Melanocyte
3-Nonpigmented granular dendrocytes
( a ) langerhan's cells
( b ) Granstein cells
4-Merkel's cells
Dermis
The dermis has several important characteristic
Is composed of connective tissue containing
collagen, elastic fibers, blood vessels and nerve
Structural basis of skin color
Skin color arise from variations in the amounts of three
pigments: melanin , carotene , and hemoglobin

Melanin – a yellow – red or brown – black pigment produced


by melanocytes located mostly in the epidermis , where it
absorbs uv radiation )
The number of melanocyte are about the same in all people ,
difference in skin color is due to the amount of pigment
produce

Carotene – yellow – orange pigment (found in the stratum


corneum, dermis, and subcutaneous layer)

Hemoglobin –red color (located in erythrocytes flowing through


dermal capillaries)
Skin appendages
Glands of the skin

A- sweat glands
- Simple coiled tubular
glands
- Secretory portion
- Excretory portion ( duct)
- Secretion
b- Sebaceous gland
- Simple branched acinar gland
- Large vacuolated cells by the side of a hair follicle
Nails
- Nails are plates of dead cells packed
with keratin
- The nail root , eponychium , nail
plate , nail bed ,and lunula
I. Bones
 Are calcified connective tissue
 consisting of :
1. cells (osteocytes) in a matrix of ground substance &
2. collagen fibers.

Functions:
 Serve as a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus
 act as levers on which muscles act to produce
movements permitted by joints.
 Contain internal soft tissue, marrow, where blood cells
are formed.
Are classified, according to shape, into :
long,
short,
flat,
irregular, and
sesamoid bones;
A. Long bones
Have :
- a shaft (diaphysis)&
- two ends (epiphyses).
- metaphysis is a part of
diaphysis adjacent to
epiphyses.

Include :
humerus, radius, ulna,
femur, tibia, fibula,
metacarpals, phalanges.
B. Short bones
Include :
carpal and
tarsal bones
are approximately cuboid shaped.
Are composed of spongy bone and marrow
surrounded by a thin outer layer of compact bone.
C. Flat bones
Include:
ribs, sternum, scapulae, bones of skull.
Consist of two layers of compact bone enclosing
spongy bone and marrow space.
D. Irregular bones
Include bones of mixed shapes such as :
bones of skull,
vertebrae, and
coxa.
Contain mostly spongy bone enveloped by a thin outer
layer of compact bone
E. Sesamoid bones
-Develop in certain tendons
-reduce friction on tendon.
-Are found in long bones of limbs, as in wrist & knee
(i.e., patella).
II. Joints
Joints
-Are places of union between two or
more bones.
-Are classified on basis of their structural
features into:
1- fibrous,
2- cartilaginous,
3- synovial types.
A. Fibrous joints
 have no joint cavities,
 permit little movement.
1. Sutures
 Are found between flat bones of skull.

2. Syndesmoses
 Occur as :
1.inferior tibiofibular syndesmoses.
B. Cartilaginous joints
 have no joint cavity.

1. Primary cartilaginous joints


• Permit no movement but growth in length of bone.
• Include :
1. manubriosternal joint

2. Secondary cartilaginous joints


• are slightly movable joints.
• Include :
1. pubic symphysis and
2. intervertebral disks.
C. Synovial joints
 Permit a great degree of free movement
 Are characterized by three features:
1. joint cavity,
2. synovial membrane (which produces synovial fluid),
3. articular capsule.
 are classified according to shape of articulation and/or
type of movement.
1. Plane joints
 Are united by two flat articular surfaces
 allow a simple gliding or sliding of one bone over other.
 Occur in :
1. proximal tibiofibular,
2. intertarsal,
3. intercarpal,
4. intermetacarpal,
5. carpometacarpal,
6. Sternoclavicular joints.
2. Hinge joints
 Resemble door hinges
 allow only flexion and extension.
 Occur in
1. elbow,
2. ankle, and
3. interphalangeal joints.
3. Pivot joints
 Allow only rotation (movement around a single longitudinal axis).
 Occur in :
superior and inferior radioulnar joints

4. Condylar joints
 Have two convex condyles articulating with two concave
condyles.
 Allow flexion and extension
 occur in :
1. wrist (radiocarpal),
2. metacarpophalangeal,
3. knee (tibiofemoral)
5. Saddle joints
 allow flexion and extension, abduction and adduction, and
circumduction but no axial rotation.
Occur in:
1. carpometacarpal joint of thumb
2. between femur and patella.
6. Ball-and-socket joints
 (ball-like) head into a cup-shaped cavity
 allow movement in many directions.
 Allow :
A. flexion and extension,
B. abduction and adduction,
C. medial and lateral rotations, and circumduction
occur in
1. shoulder
2. hip joints.
1-bones of skull
The human skull is generally consist of 22 bones
8 cranial bones are

- occipital bone
- two temporal bones
- two parietal bones
- sphenoid
- ethmoid
- frontal bones.
The bones of the facial skeleton(14)
- vomer
- two nasal conchae
- two nasal bones
- two maxilla
- mandible
- two palatine bones
- two zygomatic bones
- two lacrimal bones.
2- vertebral colomn
is part of the axial skeleton. The vertebral column consist of bones—
vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs The vertebral column houses
the spinal canal, a cavity that encloses and protects the spinal cord..the
vertebrae are:

 Cervical spine: 7 vertebrae (C1–


C7)
 Thoracic spine: 12 vertebrae (T1–
T12)
 Lumbar spine: 5 vertebrae (L1–
L5)
 Sacrum: 5 (fused) vertebrae (S1–
S5)
 Coccyx: 4 (3–5) (fused) vertebrae
3- The Bony Thorax

• Sternum
- Manubrium,
-Body,
-Xiphoid
Process
• Ribs
-7 True Ribs
-5 False Ribs
• Clavicle
• Scapula
• Vertebrae
-Thoracic
4-Bony Pelvis
Pelvis is basin-shaped ring of bone formed by :

1. two hip bones


(ilium, ischium, and
pubis.)
2-sacrum
3-coccyx.
5- upper limbs
Shoulder joint composed of the clavicle and
the scapula, connects the upper limb .

elbow joint is a complex of three joints —


the humeroradial, humeroulnar, and superior
radioulnar joints

wrist joint composed of the carpal bones, articulates


at the wrist joint (or radiocarpal joint) proximally and
the carpometacarpal joint distally
upper limbes bone

Arm
• humerus
Forarm
• Radius
• Ulna
Hand
• Carpal
• Metacarpal
• Phalanges
6 - lower limb
Hip joint is acetabulofemoral joint is
the joint between the femur and acetabulum of
the pelvis

knee joins the thigh with the leg and consists of


two joints: one between
the femur and tibia (tibiofemoral joint), and one
between the femur and patella (patellofemoral
joint)

ankle is the region where the foot and


the leg meet
Lower limb bone:

Thigh
- femur
- patella
Leg
- tibia
- fibula
Foot
- tarsals
- metatarsals
- phalanges
The Heart
• is a hollow muscular organ
• pyramid shaped

• lies within pericardium in


the mediastinum .

• It is connected at its base to


the great blood vessels.
pericardium
• is a fibroserous sac
• encloses the heart and the roots of
the great vessels.
• lies within the middle mediastinum.
The Heart Chambers

• Four chambers
– Two atria
• (Right and Left)

– Two ventricles
• (Right and Left)
The Heart Chambers
• Atria
– Features
 small, thin-walled
chambers

– Functions
 receiving chambers for
blood returning to the
heart from the
circulation

 push the blood into the


adjacent ventricles.
The Heart Chambers

• Atria
– Receive blood
from
 Right side
 Superior and
Inferior Vena
Cava
 Coronary Sinus
 Left side
 Pulmonary Veins
The Heart Chambers
• Ventricles
– Features
 make up most of
the mass of the
heart

 the walls of the


left ventricle are
3X thicker than
those of the right
The Heart Chambers
• Ventricles
– Functions
propel blood to
-Pulmonary Trunk
(right ventricle),
- Aorta
(left ventricle)
The Heart Valves
Two major types
– Atrioventricular valves
– Semilunar valves

• Atrioventricular (AV) valves lie


between the atria and the ventricles
– R-AV valve = tricuspid valve
– L-AV valve = bicuspid or mitral
valve

• AV valves prevent backflow of blood


into the atria when ventricles contract
Semilunar Heart Valves

• Semilunar valves prevent backflow


of blood into the ventricles

• Aortic semilunar valve lies


between the left ventricle and the
aorta

• Pulmonary semilunar valve lies


between the right ventricle and
pulmonary trunk

• Heart sounds (“lub-dup”) due to


valves closing
– “Lub” - closing of atrioventricular
valves
– “Dub”- closing of semilunar valves
114 Jesús A. Custodio Marroquín
The Heart Valves
Pulmonary
Right AV semilunar valve
(tricuspid)
valve Aortic
semilunar valve
Chordai Left AV
tendineae (bicuspid)
valve
Papillary
muscle
Arterial Supply of the Heart
Right coronary artery
Branches
– Right marginal arteries
– Posterior interventricular
artery.
– Sinoatrial nodal artery.
– Atrioventricular nodal
artery.
Left coronary artery
Branches
– Left anterior descending
(LAD) or anterior
interventricular artery.
– Left marginal artery.
– Left circumflex artery.
Coronary Arteries
Venous Drainage of the Heart
Nerve Supply of the Heart
The heart is innervated by sympathetic and
parasympathetic nerve
External Heart: Posterior View
Gross Anatomy of Heart: Frontal
Section
Digestive System

 is a long muscular tube


 lined with epithelial tissue passing through the body

Its primary function is to move water, nutrients and electrolytes from


the external environment into the body’s internal environment
• Digestive system
– Esophagus
– Stomach
– Small intestine
– Large intestine
– Accessory organs
• Liver & gall bladder
• Bile ducts
• Pancreas
Begins with ….oral cavity (mouth and pharynx)
where chewing and the secretion of saliva starts digestion

Food moves through :


(esophagus → stomach → small intestine → large
intestine) with different functions
Peritoneum
2 connective tissue membranes in abdominal cavity

Visceral peritoneum
– covers external surface of digestive organs
Parietal peritoneum
– lines the internal wall of the abdominal cavity

Between the 2 layers of peritoneum is peritoneal cavity is


filled with peritoneal fluid
Serosa
Wall of the Alimentary Canal

4 principle layers of GIT:


Mucosa (superficial)
Submucosa
Muscularis
Serosa (deep)
Layers of the Alimentary Canal Wall
Features of the Mouth
• Buccal/oral cavity

• Vestibule: area bounded by lips and cheeks externally and


teeth and gums internally

• Lips: no posses sweat or oil glands

• Palate: forms roof of the mouth, soft and hard


palate, uvula
Anatomy of the Mouth
Types of Salivary Glands
• Submandibular Glands
– Found underneath the mandible

• Sublingual Glands
– Found underneath tongue

• Parotid Glands
– Found anterior to the ear between masseter and skin
Anatomy of the Salivary Glands
Features of Esophagus
• Muscular tube that propels food to stomach

• Esophageal sphincter – prevents backflow into oral


cavity

• Cardiac sphincter- prevents backflow into esophagus


Anatomy of the Esophagus
Features of the Stomach
• Regions:
– cardiac, fundus, body, and pyloric

• Greater and Lesser Curvatures: connected to greater and lesser


omentums

• Rugae folds: longitudinal folds in stomach wall

• Muscle layers arranged


• circularly,
• longitudinally,
• obliquely
Blood supply of stomach
Small intestine
Are 3 segments :
duodenum (proximal),
jejunum (middle)
ileum (distal)

intestinal enzymes aided digestion by the secretions of :


 liver
 pancreas
– hepatic and pancreatic secretions (bile and pancreatic
juice)
Features and Functions of the Small
Intestine
• Receives chyme from stomach; performs majority of
digestion and absorption of nutrients
• Regions:
– Duodenum (upper region receiving chyme from stomach and
digestive enzymes from pancreas and bile from liver and
gallbladder)
– Jejunum/Ileum (lower regions where absorption occurs)

• Plicae circulares (permanent folds in mucosa and submucosa that slow


movement of chyme)
Small Intestine
Sectional View of Small Intestine
Pancreas
A triangular gland located behind
the stomach which has both :
 exocrine functions
&
 endocrine functions
Anatomy of the Liver
• Right and Left Lobes: separated by falciform
ligament
• Caudate and Quadrate Lobes: found on posterior
side
• Blood vessels:
– Hepatic artery/vein and hepatic portal vein
• Gallbladder: found underneath right lobe, stores bile
Liver and Gallbladder
• liver secrete bile into :
• hepatic ducts leading to gallbladder

• Gallbladder
– a muscular sac
– stores bile secreted from the liver
Large Intestine

• Any food in the small intestine that could not be chemically


digested is moved into the large intestine
• where most of the remaining water and ions are absorbed and the
remaining material removed by defecation

Subdivided into 3 anatomical segments


1-colon
 ascending colon
 transverse colon
 descending colon
 sigmoid colon
2-rectum
3-anal canal
Gross Anatomy of the Large Intestine
• Teniae Coli: bands of smooth muscle that create pocket-like
sacs (haustra)
• Cecum: sac-like connection between the small and large
intestines
• Appendix: small structure containing lymphoid tissue; small
immune function
• Ascending, Descending, Transverse, and Sigmoid Colon
• Splenic and hepatic flexure
• Rectum: storage area
• Anus: regulates defecation with two sphincter muscles;
internal and external
Large
Intestine
Enteric Nervous System
• Connected to the CNS via :

Parasympathetic NS
(stimulates digestion)

Sympathetic NS
(inhibits digestion)
Muscles of Head & Face
1-frontal muscle
2-occipital muscle
3-Temporalis (Connects frontal and occipital
muscles)

frontal

Temporalis

occipital
- Orbicularis Oris
circular muscle around mouth

- Orbicularis Oculi
circular muscles around eyes

- Zygomaticus major and


minor
- Masseter
muscles of mastication
temporalis,
masseter,
medial pterygoid,
lateral pterygoid
Muscle of thoracic and abdominal region
anterior side
Posterior side
Muscle of upper limb
Muscle of arm
- biceps
- triceps
- brachialis
- brachioradialis
Muscle of forearm
anterior compartment ( superficial compartment)
-flexor carpi ulnaris
- flexor carpi radialis
- palmaris longus
- pronator teres
anterior compartment ( deep compartment)
- flexor digitorum superficialis
- flexor pollicis lonugs
Posterior compartment ( superficial
compartment)
- extensor carpi radialis brevis
- extensor carpi ulnaris
- extensor digiti minimi
- extensor digitorum
Posterior compartment ( deep compartment)
- abductor pollicis longus
- extensor pollicis brevis
Muscle of hand (anterior)
Muscle of hand (posterior)
Muscle of lower limb
muscles of lower limb are divided into:
muscles of thigh
Anterior group
- Sartorius
- Quadricep
- Rectus femoris
- Vastus medialis
- Vastus lateralis
- Vastus intermedius
Medial group
Pectineus
Adductor longus
Adductor brevis
Adductor magnus
Gracilis
Posterior group
Biceps femoris
Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus
Muscle of leg
Anterior group
Tibialis anterior
Extensor hallucis longus
Extensor digitorum longus
Peroneus tertius
Lateral group
Peroneus longus
Peroneus brevis
Posterior group
Superficial lager triceps surae
Gastrocnemius
Soleus
Muscles of foot
Muscles on dorsum:
- extensor digitorum brevis
Muscles in sole:
- medial,
- lateral &
- intermediate groups
Respiratory
system
Consists of the :
– Respiratory zone
– conducting zone

Respiratory zone
– Site of gas exchange
Consists of :
– bronchioles,
– alveolar ducts,
– alveoli
Conducting zone
• Provides rigid conduits for air to reach the sites of gas
exchange

Includes
– nose,
– nasal cavity,
– pharynx,
– Trachea
– bronchi
178 Chapter 22, Respiratory System
Figure 22.1
Nose
consists of :

- external nose
- nasal cavity,
External Nose
nostrils,
nasal septum
ala nasi is
nasal ‫ى‬
bone
Upper nasal
cartilage
lower nasal
cartilage

nostrils
Blood Supply of External Nose
1.Ophthalmic artery &
2.maxillary artery

Nerve Supply of External Nose


1.ophthalmic nerve

2.maxillary nerve
Nasal Cavity
extends from :
• nostrils
• posterior nasal apertures
nose opens into nasopharynx.
- Nasal cavity divide into right and left halves by nasal
septum.
septum is made up of :
1. septal cartilage
2. septal bone,
 ethmoid
 vomer.
Vertical
plate of
ethmoid

septal cartilage

vomer
Blood Supply to Nasal Cavity
maxillary artery,

Nerve Supply of Nasal Cavity.


• olfactory nerves

• trigeminal nerve:
paranasal sinuses
are cavities found in interior of
1.maxilla,
2.frontal,
3.sphenoid, &
4.ethmoid bones.
Pharynx
• It is divided into three regions
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Muscles of Pharynx
Superior constrictor
Middle constrictor
Inferior constrictor

Superior constrictor

Middle constrictor

Inferior constrictor
Blood Supply of Pharynx
1. pharyngeal artery
2. superior & inferior thyroid arteries.

Innervation
1. glossopharyngeal
2. vagus nerve
Larynx (Voice Box)
Cartilages
A. Thyroid cartilage
B. Cricoid cartilage
C. Epiglottis
D. Arytenoid cartilages
E. Corniculate cartilages
F. Cuneiform cartilages
Trachea
• Flexible and mobile tube
• extending from larynx into mediastinum
– made of C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
Bronchi
A highly branched system

Bronchi subdivide into :


primary, secondary bronchi, each supplying
a lobe of the lungs

Bronchial Tree
primary bronchus -Secondary bronchi tertiary
bronchi bronchioles terminal bronchioles
Respiratory Zone of Lower Respiratory Tract
Lobar Bronchi
• R main stem divides • L main stem divides
into: into:
– Upper lobar bronchus – Upper lobar bronchus
– Middle lobar bronchus
– Lower lobar bronchus – Lower lobar bronchus
Lungs
• Pair of Cone-shaped organs
• Lie in pleural cavity
• Left lung is narrower
• Right lung is shorter
Lungs
RIGHT LUNG LEFT LUNG

3 Lobes 2 Lobes
Upper Middle and Lower Upper and Lower

1 Fissure
2 Fissures
Oblique
Oblique & Horizontal

Segments Segments

Secondary Lobules Secondary Lobules


203
Hilum
• Opening on the medial surface of the lungs
• Contains:
– Mainstem bronchi
– Blood vessels
– Lymphatics
– nerves
urinary system
The urinary system, also known as the renal
system or urinary tract, consists of
the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra.

The purpose of the urinary system is to


eliminate waste from the body,
regulate blood volume and blood pressure,
control levels of electrolytes and metabolites,
and regulate blood pH.
Kidney
 Is retroperitoneal

 extends from T12 to L3 vertebrae in erect


position.

 right kidney lies a little lower than left


 because of large size of right lobe of liver.

 right kidney is related to rib 12 posteriorly,


 left one is related to ribs 11 &12 posteriorly.
renal capsule :
•a firm, fibrous layer cover kidney

renal fascia:
deep fascia surround kidney
•divides fat into two regions:
A-perirenal perinephric fat
( )

lies in perinephric space


between renal capsule & renal fascia,

B- pararenal paranephric fat


( )

lies external to renal fascia.


perirenal
(perinephric) fat
Hilus:
an indentation on its medial border,
through which ureter, renal vessels, & nerves enter
or leave it.

Kidney Consists of :
I. medulla &
II. cortex
1. Cortex
 Forms outer part of it
 projects into medullary region between renal
pyramids as renal columns.

 Contains renal corpuscles & proximal & distal


convoluted tubules.
2. Medulla
•inner part of kidney
consists of:
renal pyramids
 8- 12 in No.,
 contain straight tubules (Henle's loops) and collecting
tubules.

renal papilla:
•An apex of renal pyramid,
•fits into cup-shaped minor calyx
•on which collecting tubules open (10 to 25 openings).
•Like nipple of breast.

3. Minor calyces
•Receive urine from collecting tubules & empty into:
two - three major calyces, which in turn empty into,
renal pelvis. an upper dilated portion of ureter
•Has arterial segments including:
1. superior,
2. anterosuperior,
3. anteroinferior,
4. inferior,
5. posterior segment,

-which are of surgical importance.


Suprarenal (adrenal) gland

•Is a retroperitoneal organ


•lying on superomedial aspect of kidney.
•is surrounded by a capsule and renal fascia.
•Is pyramidal on right and semilunar on left.
• has cortex and medulla
Ureter
•Is a muscular tube that begins with renal
pelvis, extending from kidney to urinary
bladder. transmits urine
- Has three constrictions along its course:
1. at its origin where pelvis of ureter joins ureter,

2. where it crosses pelvic brim,

3. at its junction with bladder.


Enters obliquely through base of bladder

opens by a slit-like orifice that acts as a valve,

circular fibers of intramural part of ureter act as a


sphincter.

When bladder is distended, valve and sphincter


actions prevent reflux of urine from urinary bladder
into ureter
Receives blood from:
 aorta
 renal,
 gonadal,
 common
 internal iliac,
 umbilical,
 superior
 inferior vesical,
 middle rectal arteries.
Is innervated by:
a-lumbar (sympathetic)

b- pelvic (parasympathetic)
splanchnic nerves.
Urinary bladder
• Is situated below peritoneum
• is slightly lower in female than
in male.
Has:
apex
fundus or base
neck,

trigone
is bounded by two orifices of ureters &internal urethral orifice,
Has detrusor muscle :
bundles of smooth muscle fibers
Receives blood from :
1.superior vesical artery
2.inferior vesical artery
venous blood is drained by
•prostatic (or vesical) plexus of veins,
•empties into internal iliac vein.
Innervation:
by from the
• vesical nerve plexuses
• prostatic nerve plexuses.

- parasympathetic nerve
- sympathetic nerve
urethra
is a tube that connects
the urinary bladder to
the urinary meatus for
the removal of urine
from the body. In males,
the urethra travels
through the penis and
also
carries semen. In female
the urethra connects to
the urinary meatus
above the vagina,
Nervous Systems

is divided into two main parts:


A-central nervous system,
I.brain
II.spinal cord,

B-peripheral nervous system,


1.cranial nerves
2.spinal nerves
With associated ganglia.
central nervous system
are main centers where correlation & integration of
nervous information

are covered with a system of membranes, meninges,

are suspended in cerebrospinal fluid CSF;

are further protected by bones of :


skull &
vertebral column.
centers is organized into :
1.gray matter…….cells neurons
2.white matter……axons with
mylein sheath
Brain
 lies in cranial cavity
 is continuous with spinal cord through foramen magnum

It is surrounded by three meninges:


A.dura mater,
B.arachnoid mater,
C.pia mater;

 cerebrospinal fluid surrounds it in subarachnoid space.


is divided into three major divisions are:
I.forebrain.
II.midbrain,
III.hindbrain,
forebrain
subdivided into:
1.cerebrum.
2.diencephalon
is central part of forebrain,

Midbrain
 is narrow part
 connects forebrain to hindbrain.
 narrow cavity of it is cerebral aqueduct,
connects third and fourth ventricles
 contains :
1. many nuclei &
2. bundles of ascending and descending nerve fibers.
Hindbrain
subdivided into:
A.medulla oblongata,
B.pons,
C.Cerebellum.
Cranial nerve

•olfactory nerve (I) ---- sensory : nose


•optic nerve (II) ---- sensory : eye
•oculomotor nerve (III) ---- motor : all eye muscle except
those supplied by IV and VI
•trochlear nerve (IV) ---- motor : superior oblique muscle
•trigeminal nerve (V) ---- sensory : face, sinuses, teeth
motor : muscles of mastication
•abducens nerve (VI) ---- motor :external rectus muscle
•fascial nerve (VII) ---- motor : muscle of the face
•vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) ---- sensory : inner ear
•glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) ---- motor: pharyngeal
musculature
sensory : posterior part of
tongue, tonsil, pharynx
•vagus nerve (X) ---- motor : heart, lungs, bronchi,
gastrointestinal tract
sensory: heart, lungs, bronchi,
trachea, larynx, pharynx,
gastrointestinal tract, external ear.
•Accessory nerve (XI) ---- motor: sternocledomastoid and
trapezius muscle
•Hypoglossal nerve (XII) ---- motor: muscle of the tongue
peripheral nervous system:
1.cranial nerves
2.spinal nerves
peripheral nervous system:
1.Somatic Nervous System
2.Autonomic Nervous System

Somatic Nervous System


 Sensory &
 Motor
Autonomic Nervous System
 sympathetic part
 parasympathetic

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