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ESAS Physics Reviewer
INTRODUCTION Acceleration is the change of velocity per unit Coefficient of static friction is the Fmax
time. ratio of the limiting frictional force to µs =
Physics is the branch of science that describes the normal force. N
matter, energy, space and time at the most Instantaneous acceleration is the time rate of
fundamental level. change of velocity. Uniformly accelerated CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
motion is defined as the motion in a straight line
UNITS in which the direction is always the same and the
Centripetal force is the force (real force) on the
speed changes at a constant rate.
Metric system of units is based on powers of ten. body towards the center of rotation when the body
In 1960, the General Conference of Weights and is moving around a curved path.
DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
measures, proposed the SI units (System
Centrifugal force is Tangential
International). The basic SI units are:
Distance is a length from one point to another the force (apparent Velocity
usually measured in a straight line. It is a scalar force) on the body
Quantity Unit Name Symbol r
quantity. directed away from
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg the center of rotation
Time second s
Displacement is the change in position, specified when the body is •
by a length and a direction. Displacement is a moving around a Centripetal Centrifugal
Electrical vector quantity. Force Force
ampere A curve path.
current
Temperature kelvin K FORCE, WEIGHT AND MASS Let FC = centripetal force.
Amount of
mole mol
substance Force is a push or a pull that one body exerts on
Luminous another. This includes gravitational, electrostatic,
intensity
candela cd mVT 2
magnetic and contact influences. For SI System: FC = Newtons
r
Derived units (are constructed from combination where:
Constant forces are forces that do not vary with
of basic units. Example: The SI unit of force is m = mass in kg
time. External forces are those actions of other
VT = tangential velocity m/s
newton (N) which is kg⋅m/s2. bodies on a rigid body while those forces that hold
r = radius of curvature in m
together parts of a rigid body are called internal
VECTOR AND SCALAR QUANTITIES forces.
mVT 2
Vector quantities are quantities whose For English System: FC = lbf
Weight (of a body) is the resultant gravitational g Cr
measurement is specified by magnitude and force acting on the body due to all other bodies in
direction. The following are examples of vector space. It is always a vertical force acting
quantities: Weight, momentum, torque, velocity, where: m = mass in lbm
downward.
displacement, acceleration, electric field intensity, VT = tangential velocity in ft/s
etc. r = radius of curvature in ft
Mass is defined as the property that determines
how much an object resists a change in motion. lbm − ft
gc = 32.2
Scalar quantities are those quantities which The greater the mass the greater the inertia or sec 2 − lbf
have only magnitudes. The following are resistance to change in motion.
examples of scalar quantities: Speed, mass, LAWS OF MOTION
volume, energy, length, temperature, pressure, Newton (N) is the force that will give to a mass of
voltage, time etc. The term “scalar” comes from one kilogram an acceleration of one meter per Newton’s First Law: (The law of inertia)
Latin “scala” which means “a ladder”. second per second. “There is no change in the motion of a body
unless an unbalanced external force is acting
Vector is the line whose length indicates to scale Dyne (dyn) is the force that will give to a mass of upon it.”
the magnitude of the vector quantity and whose one gram an acceleration of one centimeter per
direction indicates the direction of the quantity. second per second. Inertia is the property of the body by virtue of
The term “vector” comes from Latin “vehere” which a resultant force is required to change its
which means “to carry”. Poundal is the force that will give to a mass of motion.
one pound an acceleration of one foot per second
Classifications of Vectors per second. Newton’s Second Law: (The law of acceleration)
“Whenever a net (resultant) force acts on a body,
1. Free vector – is one whose action is not Slug is the mass to which a force of one pound it produces an acceleration in the direction of the
confined to or associated with a unique line in will give an acceleration of one foot per second resultant force that is directly proportional to the
space. per second. resultant force and inversely proportional to the
mass of the body.” Mathematically,
2. Sliding vector – is one for which a unique line Gram force is one-thousandth the pull of the
in space must be maintained along which the earth upon a standard kilogram at a place where F = ma
quantity acts. g has a value of 980.665 cm/s2.
Newton’s Third Law: (The law of reaction)
3. Fixed vector – is one for which a unique point Frictional force a force acting on the body “ For every force that acts on one body there is a
of application is specified and therefore the whenever it moves while in contact with another second force equal in magnitude but opposite in
vector occupies a particular position in space. body. This force always opposes the direction of direction that acts upon another body.”
the motion. The frictional force is proportional to
SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION the normal force and is directed parallel to the
surface. LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
“Every particle in the universe attracts every other
Speed is defined as the distance per unit time. particle with a force that is directly proportional to
Speed is a scalar quantity. Velocity is defined as F = µN where: µ = coefficient of friction
the product of the masses of the two particles and
the displacement per unit time. Velocity is a vector inversely proportional to the square of the
quantity. Coefficient of kinetic friction is the ratio distance between their centers of mass.”
of the frictional force to the perpendicular µ = F
k
force pressing the two surfaces together. N
 s Torque is the ratio of the power to the angular These laws were named after the German
speed expressed in radians per second. mathematician, astronomer and astrologer,
Gm1m2 Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630).
F F= LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
s2
“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it VIBRATORY MOTION
m1 merely changes from one form to another.”
m2 Periodic motion refers to the motion in which a
Transformation of Kinetic & Potential Energy: body moves back and forth over a fixed path,
where: G = gravitational constant Potential Energy = Kinetic Energy repeating over and over a fixed series of motions
G = 6.673 x 10-11 N i m2/kg2 and returning to each position and velocity after a
G = 6.673 x 10-8 cm3/g i s2 1 definite interval of time.
mgh = mv 2 or v = 2gh
G = 3.436 x 10-8 lbf-ft2/slug2 2
G = 3.320 x 10-11 lbf-ft2/lbm2 Simple harmonic motion (SHM) refers to the
G = 3.436 x 10-8 ft4/lbf-sec4 Transformation of Work & Kinetic Energy: type of vibratory motion in which the acceleration
Work = Kinetic Energy is proportional to the displacement and is always
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 1 directed toward the position of equilibrium.
Fs = mv 2
2
Work refers to the process of changing the When an elastic spring is stretched by a force, the
energy of a particle, body or system. Work is a MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE acceleration of the restoring force is calculated as
scalar quantity. The typical units of work are follows:
Momentum is the product of the mass and
joules, foot-pound and inch-pound. k
velocity of a body. Momentum is a vector quantity. a=− s
The unit “joule” is equivalent to the units of N i m m
where:
and kg i m2/s2. This unit was named in honor of p = mv m = mass of the body
the English Physicist, James Prescott Joule where: k = spring constant
v = velocity of the body m = mass of body suspended in the spring
(1835 – 1889).
s = displacement
Impulse is the product of the force and the time
Mathematically, work is defined as the product of during which it acts. Impulse is equal to the
force and the displacement in the direction of the The period (T) of a vibratory motion is the time
change in momentum. required for a complete to-and-fro motion or
force.
Impulse = F∆t oscillation.
W = Force x distance
Impulse = p2 − p1 m
Energy is the property of the body or system of T = 2π
k
bodies by virtue of which work can be done. Impulse = mv final − mv initial
Energy is also defined as the ability to do work. where: k = spring constant
Energy is a scalar quantity. where: F = force
∆t = change in time m = mass of body suspended in the spring
The typical units for energy are joules, calories p2 = final momentum
The frequency (f) of the vibratory motion is the
and BTU (British Thermal Unit). The unit BTU and p1 = initial momentum
number of complete oscillations per unit time. It is
calorie are used for thermal energy. the reciprocal of the period.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Calorie is defined as the amount of heat required “If there is no net external force acting upon a 1
to raise the temperature of one gram of water f=
system of bodies, the momentum of the system T
1oC. does not change.”
The amplitude of a vibratory motion is the
British Thermal Unit (BTU) is defined as the COLLISIONS maximum displacement form the equilibrium
amount of heat required to raise the temperature position.
of one pound of water 1oF. Elastic collision is a collision of two bodies in
which kinetic energy as well as momentum is Simple pendulum is one which
Types of Energy: conserved. consists of a concentrated bob
Energy is classified either a potential energy or a supported by a very light string. Its L
kinetic energy. Inelastic collision is a collision of two bodies in motion is approximately simple
which only the momentum is conserve but not the harmonic motion and the period is
Potential energy is also known as the energy of kinetic energy. given by the following equation:
position or configuration or gravitational energy. L
This type of energy is decreases as the elevation Coefficient of restitution is the negative ratio of T = 2π
of the body decreases and increases as the g
the relative velocity after collision to the relative
elevation of the body increases. Normally, the lost velocity before collision. where: g = gravitational acceleration
in potential energy is converted into heat or
kinetic energy. v 2A − v 2B v 2A − v 2B
e=− = A torsion pendulum is one which
where: v1A − v1B v1B − v1A vibrates with simple angular
W = weight of body harmonic motion. Its period of
Ep = Wh m = mass of body If e = 1, the collision is perfectly elastic while if e = oscillation is given by the following
g = gravitational acceleration 0, the collision is completely inelastic. equation:
Ep = mgh
g = 9.81 m/s2 = 32.2 ft/s2
h = height of body 1
KEPLER’S LAWS T = 2π
κ
Kinetic energy is the energy in motion. The Kepler’s laws which describe the motion of θ
where: stars, planets and comets are as follows:
1 where: κ = moment of torsion
Ek = mv 2 m = mass of body Note: The moment of torsion is the ratio of the
2 v = velocity of the body First law : The planets move in ellipses having
torque to the angle of twist produced by that
a common focus situated at the
torque.
Power is the time rate of doing work sun.
or the amount of work done per unit W
P= Second law : The line which joins a planet to the WAVE MOTION
time. Power is a scalar quantity. t
sun sweeps over equal areas in
The typical units for power are watts, ft-lbf/sec equal intervals of time. Wave is defined as the disturbance that travels
and horsepower. through a medium. When the paths in which the
Third law : The squares of the periods of the particles of the medium vibrate are perpendicular
1 watt = 1 joule per second planets are proportional to the to the motion of the wave, it is said to be a
1 hp = 746 watts cubes of their mean distances from transverse wave. If the path is parallel to the
the sun. motion of the wave, it is a longitudinal wave.
Speed of wave is the distance it moves per unit where: E = elastic constant of the medium Index of refraction is the ratio of the v1
time. The speed of a transverse wave of long ρ = density of the medium speed of light (v1) of the first medium nr =
v2
strings is given by the following: to the speed of light (v2) of the second
medium.
γP γRT
T B. For gas: v= =
v= ρ M Absolute index of refraction is the
µ ratio of the speed of light in empty c
space to the speed of light in the n=
where: T = temperature of gas v
where: T = tension the string is stretched medium.
P = pressure of gas
µ = mass per unit length of string ρ = density of gas
The relative index is related to the absolute
R = universal gas constant c
For speed of a longitudinal wave or M = molecular mass of gas
compressional wave: v 1 n1
indices of the two mediums n r = =
At normal temperature, the speed of sound in air v2 c
E n2
v= is:
ρ v ≈ 331 m/s ≈ 1,100 ft/s n2
nr =
where: E = modulus of elasticity n1
ρ = density DOPPLER EFFECT
Doppler effect refers to the variation of the pitch SNELL’S LAW
Frequency (f) is the number of waves per unit “The ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence
heard from a moving source of sound or by a
time that pass a point. and of refraction is a constant that depends on
moving observer.
the media.”
Period (T) is the time required for one wave to
This is sometimes known as Doppler shift and
pass a point. Just like simple harmonic motion, This law is also known as the law of refraction or
was named after the Austrian Mathematician and
the period is reciprocal with the frequency and Descartes’ law. This is named after Dutch
Physicist, Christian Andreas Doppler (1803 –
vice versa. astronomer and mathematician, Willebrord
1853).
Snellius (1580 – 1626).
Wavelength is the distance between one particle
Relation between apparent frequency and the
in a wave and the corresponding particle in the sini n 2
frequency of the source is expressed as: n 1 sini = n 2 sinr = = nr
next wave. Two particles are in the same phase if sinr n 1
they have the same displacement and are moving
in the same direction. Relation between speed v, V − vo
fo = fs where: i = angle of incidence
frequency f and wavelength λ : V −vs r = angle of refraction
v = fλ where: fo = frequency of the observer
fs = frequency of the source SPHERICAL MIRRORS
Intensity of wavelength refers to the energy V = speed of wave relative to medium
vs = speed of source In a spherical mirror, the reflecting surface is a
transferred per unit time per unit area through a section of a sphere. A convex mirror curves
surface perpendicular to the direction of the vo = speed of observer
away from the viewer with its center of curvature
motion of the wave. is behind the mirror.
LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION
I = 2 π 2 v ρf 2 A 2
radius
Light is to the aspect of radiant energy of which
where: v = speed of wave
an observer is visually aware. The range of vertex Center of curvature
ρ = density
f = frequency
wavelength that is visible as light is from 3900 A VIEWER •
to 7600 A. The speed of light in vacuum is
A = area approximately 3.00 x 108 m/s. Principal axis of the
mirror
HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE Luminous flux is the amount of visible radiation
“Every point on a wave front may be considered passing per unit time. The unit of luminous flux is A convex mirror is also called a diverging mirror
as a new source of disturbance, sending wavelets lumen. Lumen is defined as the flux emitted by a since the reflection of a s et of parallel rays is a
in forward directions.” point source of 1 candle through a solid angle of 1 set of diverging rays. The focal point of a convex
steradian. mirror is on the principal axis a distance ½ r
This principle was named after the Dutch
behind the mirror.
Mathematician, Astronomer and Physicist, F where: F = flux
Christian Huygens (1629 – 1695). I= ω = solid angle
ω Principal rays for convex mirrors:
Refraction is the change of direction of a wave
The total luminous flux emitted by a point source 1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected
due to changes of speed. Dispersion is the as if it comes from a focal point.
property of wave which occurs when the speed of is: F = 4πI
2. A ray along a radius is reflected back upon
wave is dependent upon the frequency.
Illuminance is the luminous flux per itself.
unit area. The unit of illuminance is F 3. A ray directed toward the focal point is
LAW OF REFLECTIONS E= reflected parallel to the principal axis.
lumens per square foot or lumens A
per square meter. 4. A ray incident on the vertex of the mirror
1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle
reflects at an equal angle to the axis.
of reflection. For light from a point source, the illuminance on
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the the surface is given by the inverse-square law, as A concave mirror curves toward the viewer with
normal to the surface lie in the same plane. follows: its center of curvature in front of the mirror. A
1 concave mirror is also called converging mirror
SOUND WAVES E = 2 cos θ since it makes parallel rays converge to a point.
s
A stationary wave is a wave produced when two
waves of equal amplitude and frequency travel in Luminance is the luminous intensity
a medium in opposite directions. per unit projected area emitted by an Iθ
extender source. The unit of Bθ =
A cos θ
Sound is defined as the series of disturbances in luminance is candles per square VIEWER • •
matter that are detected by the ear. foot or in candles per square meter. C F
Speed of sound: r
E REFRACTION OF LIGHT
v=
A. For fluid or thin rod: ρ Refraction is the change in direction of a ray of
light due to change in speed.
Principal rays for concave mirrors: For the sign convention for lens, it is exactly the The specific gravity of a ρliquid
1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected same as the sign convention for mirrors. liquid is the ratio of its density S.G.liquid =
through the focal point. to that of water at 4°C. ρ water
2. A ray along a radius is reflected back upon itself. The position of an image can be found using the
3. A ray along the direction from the focal point to following formula for the first surface: Specific volume is the volume 3
the mirror is reflected parallel to the principal occupied by a unit mass of fluid. ν = 1 m
axis. n1 n 2 n 2 − n1 It is the reciprocal of density. ρ kg
4. A ray incident on the vertex of the mirror reflects + =
p q1 R1
at an equal angle to the axis. Specific weight is the weight of
a fluid per unit volume. γ = ρg
The mirror equation: …and followed by the use of the following
where: p = object distance equation for the second surface; Viscosity if the measure of the fluid’s resistance
1 1 2 1 q = image distance to flow when acted upon by an external force
+ = = n2 n n −n2
p q r f f = focal length + 1 = 1
r = radius of curvature (
− qq − t q)2 R2 Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the absolute
viscosity of a fluid to its mass density. The SI unit
image size for kinematic viscosity is m2/s while the English
Linear magnification of mirrors: M = 1  n2  1 1 
object size For thin lens: = − 1 −  unit is ft2/s.
f  n1 R
 1 R 2
Surface tension is the property of the fluid which
q The position, size and nature of an image can be offers resistance at the membrane or skin that
For spherical mirror, magnification, M is: M =
p determined by the use of the following lens forms on the free surface of the fluid which is due
Note: Use this formula for both concave and convex mirrors. equation: to the intermolecular cohesion.
1 1 1
Sign Conventions for Mirrors: + = Cohesion is the property of a liquid by virtue of
p q f
Quantity When Positive When Negative which the molecules of the liquid remain attached
Object distance, to each other while adhesion is the property of a
Always Never Linear magnification is the ratio of the size of liquid which enables it to adhere to another body
p the image to the size of the object.
Image distance, with which it comes in contact. The SI unit of
Real image Virtual image surface tension is N/m while for English unit, lbf/ft.
q
size of image
Diverging mirror magnification =
Converging mirror size of object When a glass tube of small diameter opened at
Focal length, f (convex)
(concave) f = ½ r both ends is dipped into a liquid like water, the
f=-½r
liquid rises in the tube above the general level of
Magnification, dis tance of the image from lens
Upright image Inverted image magnification = the outside liquid. If the glass tube is dipped in a
m dis tance of the object from lens liquid like mercury, the level in the tube is lower
than the general level of the outside liquid. This
THIN LENSES p phenomenon is called capillarity.
When a ray of light passes through a lens, it m=
bends toward the thicker part of the lens if the q Bulk modulus of the fluid is analogous to what is
lens has an index of refraction greater than that of known as modulus of elasticity of a solid. Bulk
the surrounding medium. Power of a lens (D) is the amount by modulus is the reciprocal of compressibility. SI
which the lens can change the curvature unit for bulk modulus is kPa while in English unit,
Principal focus is the point through which rays of a wave. It is equivalent to the psi.
parallel to the principal axis of the lens pass. reciprocal of the lens’ focal length. The D = 1
Focal length is the distance from the lens to the unit of the power of a lens is diopter. f Compressibility is the fractional change in the
principal focus. Optical center is a point on the volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure at
principal axis through which rays pass without FLUIDS constant temperature process. It is the reciprocal
changing direction. of bulk modulus. The SI unit is 1/kPa while the
Fluids refer to anything that flow. Fluids include English unit is 1/psi.
When the rays actually pass through the image liquid and gases. Fluids are generally divided into
after refraction, the image formed is known as two types, namely ideal fluids and real fluids. Pressure is defined as the perpendicular force
real image. When the rays only appear to come Characteristics of the two types of fluids: per unit area that a fluid exerts on any surface
from the image after refraction, the image is with which it comes in contact. The SI unit of
known as virtual image. IDEAL FLUIDS REAL FLUIDS pressure is pascal. (1 Pa = 1 N/m2).
No viscosity (Resistance to
Converging lens makes a set of parallel rays Viscous The average air pressure at sea level is:
shear is zero)
converge after refraction. It forms real images Incompressible Compressible = 1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 14.7 psi
when the object is farther from the lens than the Have uniform velocity Non-uniform velocity = 101.3 kPa = 760 torr
principal focus and virtual images when the distribution when flowing distribution = 1.013 bar = 29.9 in Hg
object is between the lens and the principal focus. Experience friction
No friction between Pressure variation with depth in a static fluid:
between moving layers of
Diverging lens makes a set of parallel rays moving layers of fluids
fluids
divergent after refraction. It forms a virtual image No eddy currents P2 = P1 + ρgd
of any object. No turbulence Turbulent in flow
Note: Point 2 is a depth d below point 1
Principal Rays and Principal Focal Points for Thin
Real fluids are further divided into two namely,
Lenses: Gauge pressure is the amount by which the
Newtonian fluids and Non-newtonian fluids.
Converging lens Diverging lens Newtonian fluids are fluids that exhibit constant absolute pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure.
Ray 1. An or uniform viscosities while non-newtonial fluids
Passes through Appears to come
incident ray
the principal focal from the principal are those whose viscosities will vary with velocity. Pgauge = Pabs − Patm
parallel to the
point focal point
principal axis
Ray 2. A ray The density, ρ (rho) of a fluid is its m Manometer is an instrument used to measure
Passes straight Passes straight mass per unit volume. The SI unit of ρ=
incident at the V difference in pressure while barometer is an
through the lens through the lens density is kg/m3.
optical center instrument used to measure atmospheric
Ray 3. A ray that Appears to come Appears to have pressure.
emerges parallel from the been heading for Density of liquid: ρliquid = ρ water (S.G.)liquid
to the principal secondary focal the secondary
where:
axis point focal point
Location of the ρwater = 1000 kg/m3 = 9810 N/m3 = 9.81 kN/m3 “GOALS ARE DREAMS WITH DEADLINES.”
principal focal Past the lens Before the lens = 62.4 lb/ft 3 = 1 gram/cm3
point