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Elements of Machine Design

EMD ( 22564 )
Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Chapter No. Chapter Name Marks

1. Fundamentals of design 14
2. Design of joints, levers, and offset links 12
3. Design of shaft, keys and couplings 14
4. Design of power screw and fasteners 12
5. Design of spring 10
6. Selection of anti-friction bearings and gears 8
 1. Fundamentals of design
Machine design: -

Machine design is defined as by using scientific principle, technical information and imagination in
description of machine to perform the specific function.

General procedure or steps involved in designing a machine component or phases in design :-

1) Recognition of need :- First of all make a complete statement of problem,

and determine aim & purpose of the machine.

2) Mechanism: Select the suitable mechanism or group of mechanism which

will give the desired motion.

3) Analysis of forces: Find the forces acting on each member of the machine.

4) Material selection: Select best suited material for each member.

5) Design of machine element: Find the size of each member by considering

forces acting on it

6) Modification: Modify the size of member according to past experience

& judgement to reduces the overall cost & satisfactory performance.

7) Detailed drawing: Draw detailed drawing of each component & assembly

of machine with complete specification for the manufacturing.

8) Production: The component as per the drawing is manufactured in workshop.

General consideration in machine design:

1) Types of load & stresses induced in body: The load on machine component may act in several ways.
due to this forces internal stresses are induced in machine components.

2) Mechanism (Motion of parts or kinematics of the machine): Successful operation of any machine
depends on arrangement of parts which transmit required motion.

3) Selection of material: Designer should have deep knowledge of properties of material & behavior
under working condition i.e. Strength, durability, flexibility, castability, weldability, hardenability,
machinability etc.
4) Convenient & economical features: The designed machine should be easy to operate & cost wise
economical for customer.

5) Use of standard parts: The use of standard parts reduces the overall cost.

6) Safety of operation: To avoid accidental hazards, care should be taken by designer.

7) Workshop facilities: A design engineer should be known about Workshop facilities such as machine,
measuring instruments, and try to avoid necessity of vendors.

8) Number of machines to be manufactured.

9) Cost of production: Cost should be as minimum as possible.

10) Ease in assembly: - All the components of machine should be easy to assemble.

Various properties of engineering material required for basic design

Elasticity :- The ability of material which regains in its original shape and size after removal the external
deforming force is called as elasticity.

Plasticity :- The ability of material which does not regains in its original shape and size after removal the
external deforming force is called plasticity. the material get permanent deform

Rigidity :- When large number of forces acting on the body, it does not change its shape and size this
property known as rigidity

Ductility :- The ability of material which can be drawn into thin wire with the help of tensile force is
known as ductility.

Malleability :- The ability of material which can be drawn into thin sheet with the help of compressive
force is known as malleability.

Hardness :- The ability to cut another material. Or

The ability of material to resist its failure under the action of wear, penetration, abrasion, scratching is
known as hardness.

Brittleness :- The ability of material which does not give any prior warning before it fracture is known as
brittleness.

Resilience:- The ability of material which store the energy up to the proportional limit is known as
resilience

Strain energy :- The ability of material which store the energy up to the elastic limit is known as strain
energy.

Toughness :- The ability of material which store the energy before it fracture is known as toughness.

Creep :- Slow and progressive deformation with respect to time is known as creep.
Fatigue :- the ability of material which resist its failure under the action of repeated and fluctuated load is
called as fatigue.

Types of loads :-

1. Dead or steady load :- The load which do not change in magnitude, direction and point of application
with respect to time is called dead load. eg. Load acting on column.

2. Variable or fluctuating load :- the load which change in magnitude, direction and point of application
with respect to time is called as variable or fluctuating load eg. forces in IC engine.

3. Impact load :- The load which applied suddenly with initial velocity is known as impact load.

eg. Hammer blow.

4. Shock Load :- The load which is applied and remove suddenly is known as shock load.

eg. Load act on suspension of automobile.

Force :- Any external agency which can change the position of the body and which can change the state
of the body is known as force.

Stress :- Stress is defined as it is the internal resisting force per unit cross sectional area.

Strain :- Strain is defined as the ratio of change in length to the original length.

e = Strain = Linear Strain =

Lateral strain :- Lateral Strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension.

elat =
Poison ratio :- poison ratio is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to linear strain.
Stress strain curve for the ductile material :-

The graph shows the relationship between stress and strain in which ductile material is subjected to
gradually increasing tensile load up to the fracture in universal testing machine (UTM).

Proportional limit (O to A): In stress-strain diagram O to A represent straight line i.e. stress is directly
proportional to strain & obeying Hooke's law. It is known as proportional limit.

Elastic limit (B): In stress strain diagram point B represent elastic limit i.e. if load is increased between
point A & B the body regain its original shape, when load is removed. It means body possesses elasticity
upto point B known as elastic limit.

Yield point stresses (C & D): In stress strain diagram, if the load increased beyond point B the body
loses elasticity & reaches plasticity. The strain increases at faster rate with small increase in stress until
the point C is reached & material starts yielding. The point C is called upper yield point. Further addition
to small drops the stress strain diagram to point D as soon as yielding starts. The point D is called lower
yield point.

The stresses corresponding to points C & D is called yield stresses.

Ultimate stress (E): After end of yielding if load is increased beyond point D there is increased in stress.
The maximum value of stress at point E is called ultimate stress.

Breaking stress: strain increases which is followed by decrease in cross sectional area of specimen so
that neck formation take place and further increasing load causes increase in stress and at point F
specimen breaks show the corresponding stress at point F is known as breaking stress.

Stress strain diagram for brittle material :-

Types of stresses :-

1. Tensile stress :- When forces act away from the center of body then the stresses are induced in the
body these stresses are called tensile stress.

W = axial tensile force

A = cross-sectional area

2. Compressive stress :- When forces act toward the centre of body then the stresses are induced in it
these stresses are known as compressive stresses.

3. Bending stress :- When the body is subjected to bending moment then stresses are induced in the body
these stresses is known as bending stress.

M = bending moment

I = moment of inertia

y = distance of outermost fibre from neutral axis

Z = section modulus

4. Transverse shear stress or shear stress:-

When tangential force acting on the body stresses are induced in it, this stresses are known as shear stress.

Single shear :-

• When two plates are connected with the help of rivet.

• Forces acting on the plates which will shear off this revet one time so known as single shear.

Double shear :-

• When three plates are connected with the help of rivet.

• Forces acting on the plates which will shear off these rivet two times so known as double shear

5. Torsional shear stress :- When the machine component is subjected to two equal and opposite couple
(twisting moment or torque) then the stresses are induced in the body these stresses are known as
torsional shear stress.

T= Torque

Ip = polar moment of inertia

G = modulus of rigidity
6. Crushing stress :- The localize compressive stress at the surface of contact between two parts of a
same machine which does not have relative motion between them is called crushing stress. eg. Rivated
joint.

7. Bearing stress :- The localize compressive stress at the surface of contact between two parts of a same
machine which have relative motion between them is called bearing stress. eg. Bearing

Principal plane :- A plane on which only normal stresses acts and no shear stresses acts is called
principal plane

Principal stress :- The magnitude of normal stresses acting on the principle plane is called principal
stress

Maximum principal stress :- The maximum value of normal stress acting on the principle plane is
known as maximum principal stress.

Minimum principal stress :- The minimum value of normal stress acting on the principle plane is called
as minimum principal stress.

Creep Curve :-

• Slow and progressive deformation under the constant temperature with respect to time is known as
creep.

• When load is applied at the beginning of creep test, instantaneous elastic deformation OA occurs.

• The elastic deformation is follow by creep curve ABCD which is in three stages.

1. First stage :-

• Curve AB shows primary creep

• In this stage creep rate decreases, slope of curve increases from A to B progressively with respect to time.
2. Second stage :-

• Curve BC shows secondary creep.

• In this stage creep rate is almost constant and occupies major portion of life of component.

3. Third stage :-

• Curve CD shows tertiary creep.

• In this stage creep is accelerated and get increased and due to neck formation it will break at point D.

Fatigue failure :-

• The ability of material which resist its failure under the action of repeated and fluctuated load is known as fatigue.

• This type of failure causes due to progressive crack formation, actually this cracks are very very small in size
(microscopic size).

• This small cracks are subjected to repeated stress concentration due to which alternative tensile and compressive
stresses are set up.

• Due to opening and closing of crack in each cycle, crack propagates with number of cycle these phenomenon is
known as crack propagation.

Endurance limit or S-N Curve :-

• Endurance limit is defined as the maximum value of completely reversed bending stress, which standard
specimen can withstand without failure, for infinite number of cycles of loads.
• Consider a standard mirror polished specimen rotating in fatigue testing machine and loaded in bending at shown
in figure.

• When the specimen rotates, bending stresses at the upper fibre and bottom fibers vary from maximum
compression to maximum tension.

• In other words specimen subjected to completely reverse stresses, this is represented by time- stress graph as
shown in figure.

• Number of cycle (N) required to produce a failure at a given stress are recorded and plotted as shown in figure.

Notch sensitivity :- Notch sensitivity is defined as the ratio of increase of actual stress over nominal stress to the
increase of theoretical stress over the nominal stress.

Design stress :- Design stress is defined as the ratio of maximum stress to the factor of safety.

Factor of safety :- It is defined as the ratio of maximum stress to the working stress.

Factors to be considered while selecting the factor of safety :-

1. Reliability of applied load

2. Reliability of property of material
3. Extent of stress concentration.
4. Extent of loss of life if failure occurs.
5. Extent of loss of property if failure occurs.
6. Service condition.
7. Quality of manufacturing.
8. Type of loading.
List of machine parts with suggested material

Designation of different materials

Standardization :-

• It is defined as the process of establishing standards so as to minimize the varieties in characteristic.

• the main purpose is to achieve the uniformity, interchangeability & safety.

Various standards used in design

1. Company standards :- This standards are defined or set by a company or group of companies

2. National standards :- This standards are defined by country wise.

eg. Bureau of Indian standard. it is compulsory for every organization to follow the standard throughout the
country.

3. International standards :- This standards are defined internationally by apex body and followed all over the
world. eg. International standards organization (ISO)

Advantages or benefits of standardization: -

1. It helps in manufacturing the component quickly and economically.

2. It saves the effort of design engineer to manufacturing new machines.
3. Mass production is possible at lowest cost
4. Interchangeability of machine component is possible
5. It insure the safety
6. Easy & quick replacement of component possible.
7. Better product quality and longer service life
8. Effective utilization of resource

Stress Concentration :-

When abrupt change in cross section occurs then irregularity in stress distribution take place this known
as stress concentration.

Stress concentration occurs due to :-

1. Sudden change in cross-section area of body, such as key-way, grooves, threaded holes.
2. Surface irregularities or poor surface finish.
3. Variation in Mechanical properties of material from point to point due to cavities or crack.
4. Applied load at minimum area of machine part.

To reduce stress concentration various methods are used :-

1. In first figure, by providing

Fillets, under cutting and notches
to reduce stress concentration.

2. In second figure, by providing

additional holes or notches to
reduce stress concentration.
 3. In third figure, by reducing the shank
diameter and head & providing
undercutting reduce stress concentration

Theoretical stress concentration factor :-

It is defined as the ratio of maximum or ultimate stress in member to the nominal stress.

Fatigue stress concentration factor :-

It is defined as the ratio of endurance limit without stress concentration to the nominal stress.

Resilience :-

Resilience is defined as the property of material to absorb the energy up to the proportional limit while
resisting shock or impact load.

Modulus of resilience :-

It is defined as the maximum strain energy stored in the member per unit volume when loaded within the
elastic limit.

Proof resilience :-

It is defined as the maximum strain energy that can be stored in the body up to the elastic limit.

Factors to be consider for selection of material in designing machine element :-

1. Availability :- Material should be easily available in the market.

2. Cost :- The material should be available at cheaper rate.

3. Physical properties :- It includes colour, density, thermal conductivity, melting point, magnetic
properties.

4. Mechanical properties :- It includes strength, ductility, malleability, toughness, hardness.

5. Manufacturing ease :- Product should be easy to manufacture and material having manufacturing
abilities such as castability, weldability, machinability.

6. Corrosion resistance :- Material should be corrosion resistant.

Importance of design data book for designer :-

 To design and develop a product design engineer requires lot of information such as material
specification, physical and Mechanical properties of materials, standards, different manufacturing
process, specification, empirical relations, tool data, details of standard machines etc.
 Standard dimensions of Nut, bolts, bearings, springs along with factor of safety, stress
concentration factors are readily available in design data book.
 So use of design data book makes easy for designer to collect the above data and it saves too
much time of design engineer
Preferred numbers series :-

 Preferred numbers are important tool which minimize the unnecessary variations in sizes.
 In order to achieve standardization, use standard sizes or dimension of product
 eg. If shaft diameter is to be standardize between 10 mm and 25 mm then sizes should be 10 mm,
12.5 mm, 15 mm, 20 mm and 25 mm this concept is known as preferred number series.
 Series factor for corresponding series are mention in the following table and by multiplying the
number by series factor you will get the number.

Theories of failure :-

Various theories of elastic failure are enlisted below

1. Maximum principal stress theory or normal stress theory (Rankines theory)

2. Maximum shear stress theory (Guest theory)
3. Maximum distortion energy theory (Von Mises and Henry theory)
4. Maximum strain energy theory (Haigb’s theory)

1. Maximum principal stress theory or normal stress theory (Rankines theory) :-

 According to this theory failure of machine part occurs when maximum principal stress in bi-axial
stress system reaches limiting stress value of material in a simple tension test, therefore factor of
safety is taken in consideration.
 This theory is used for brittle material only either in tension or in compression
2. Maximum shear stress theory (Guest theory)
 According to this theory failure of machine part occurs when the maximum shear stress in bi-axial
stress system reaches to a value equal to shear stress at yield point in simple tension test.
 This theory is used for ductile material.

Ecological consideration :-

 Ecological design or eco-design is an approach to designing products and services that gives
special consideration to the environmental impacts of a product over its entire lifecycle.
 Design by ecological consideration minimizes environmentally destructive impacts by integrating
itself with living processes.
 Ecological design can also be defined as the process of integrating environmental considerations
into design and development with the aim of reducing environmental impacts of products through
their life cycle.

Product Design:-

 Product design deals with conversion of ideas into reality to fulfill the customer demands and need.
 Product design is defined as the set of activities required to bring a new product concept or service
in the market.
 These set of activities includes :-
1. Initial inspiration of new product vision
2. Engineering design of product
3. Planning and manufacturing of process of product
4. Planning for distribution of product into market
5. Planning for use of product by consumer
6. Planning for retirement of product.
Examples of product design :- design of car, design of refrigerator, design of dress
Product design is very important stage and has an impact of following three major areas of product
competency
1. Product cost
2. Product quality
3. Cycle time
Ergonomics :-

 It is defined as the relationship between men and their occupation, equipments and work
environment for purpose of increasing human efficiency.
 This principle is used to solve the problems arising from men and machine relationship.
Importance of ergonomics in design :-

1. It decreases the physical and mental stresses

2. It helps to study man machine relationship
3. Increase human efficiency
4. Improve working environment
5. Reliability, safety can be improving at lowest cost

Ergonomics consideration in design of display :-

1. The scale on dial indicator should be divided in suitable linear progression such as 0-10-20-30-
40…
2. The number of subdivisions should be minimum.
3. The vertical figures should be used for stationery dial and radially oriented figure should be used
for rotating dial.
4. The height of letter or number should be greater than reading distance/200.
5. The pointer should have knife edge to minimize parallax error.
6. The numbering should be increased in clockwise direction on circular scale, upward on vertical
scale and rightward in horizontal scale.

Display device mainly classified into two groups

1. Qualitative display :-
Qualitative display indicates only the condition or state without giving any values. eg. Read,
yellow green light use as a traffic signal.

2. Quantitative display :-
quantitative display gives numerical information about the machine. The information maybe
display as value or numbers eg. Voltmeter, ammeter, speedometer, watches.
Ergonomics consideration in design of control :-

1. The control should be easily use and properly positioned.

2. The control operation should involve minimum motions.
3. The control should be painted with proper colour to attract attention.
4. The shape of control devices should be comfortable with anatomy of hands and feet.

Ergonomic consideration in Design of environment and safety :-

1. Lighting :-
 proper lighting should be available while working.
 Surrounding area including, Walls, ceilings and all the objects should be coloured or brighten.

2. Noise :-
 High pitch noise and loud noise produces maximum disturbance to the worker so try to reduce it.
 Unwanted noise causes to many mistakes during work and feeling irritated.

3. Temperature :-
 In order to perform efficiently the operator should feel neither to hot nor to cold but comfortable.
 In order to achieve the comfortable temperature sufficient number of fan or AC available to
maintain the proper temperature.

4. Humidity and air circulation :-

 Air humidity and air velocity is much important because of to low humidity aur tu high humidity
causes discomfort to the occupants and it slightly effect on work.
 Air circulation and air velocity is also important.

Aesthetics :-

1. Aesthetic is defined as a set of principle of appreciation of beauty.

2. It deals with appearance of product.
 Consideration in aesthetic design :-
1. Shape (Form)
2. Colour
3. Symmetry and balance
4. Size
5. Style
6. Continuity
7. Variety
8. Proportion
9. Contrast
10. Impression and purpose
11. Tolerance
12. Material and
13. Surface finish
14. Noise

1. Shape (Form) :-
 There are five basic shapes of the product such as step, taper, shear, streamline and sculpture as
shown in figure.
i. Step form :- structure having vertical accent, similar to
multistory building
ii. Taper form :- it consist of tapered block or tapered cylinder.
iii. Shear form :- it has square Outlook
iv. Streamline form :- it has streamline shape having smooth flow
use in automobile and aeroplane structure.
v. Sculpture form :- it consist of ellipsoides, paraboloids and
hyperboloids.

2. Symmetry and balance :-

 It is easy to use & balance the symmetrical structure instead of non-symmetrical structure, so
symmetrysity is very important in product design to improve the aesthetic feeling.

3. Colour :-
 Colour is one of the important part of the aesthetic consideration.
 Colour represent various conditions.
4. Size :-
 Size of the product is also important factor in design consideration.
 Mobile is too much aesthetic than telephone because of smaller in size.

5. Continuity :-
A product which has good continuity of element is aesthetically appealing.

6. Proportion :-
 Proportion is concern with relationship in size amongst part.
 Spanners shown in figure a is poor appearance bub in b having better appearance.

7. Style :-
 Style is visual quality of product
 Style makes a product more attractive.

8. Tolerance :-
Proper tolerance given to the meeting parts to improve the aesthetic appeal of product.