PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 – 2025

PROJECT:

TRANSISTORS

Project Mentor: Submitted By: Aaliya

Mr.Madhusoodanan.K
. Registration no:

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
INDIAN SCHOOL AL SEEB PC
111, PB 2445, CPO SEEB
SULTANATE OF OMAN
 INDIAN SCHOOL AL SEEB

CERTIFICATE
It is hereby certified that
Master/Miss.................................................................................of class XII
Registration No. has carried out the
necessary Project work in physics as per the syllabus prescribed by the Central Board of
Secondary Education, New Delhi forthe year 2024-2025.

MADHUSOODANAN.K

PGT PHYSICS
TEACHER IN CHARGE
INTERNAL EXAMINER: EXTERNALEXAMINER:

DATE:

SCHOOL SEAL: PRINCIPAL

 Acknowledgement
It gives me immense pleasure to express deep gratitude to
my esteemed guide Mr. Madhusoodanan K., P.G.T in physics.
Without his keen interest, limitless patience and enduring
guidance, to see me through, I would not have been able to
accomplish this work.

I extend my sincere thanks to this esteemed institution,

Indian School Al Seeb, for nurturing me all these years.

I place on record my heartfelt gratitude to our beloved

Principal MR. Alex.C.joseph for creating a conducive learning
environment and being an inspiration which motivated me to
fulfill my aspirations and achieve my goals.

On a moral personal note, my deepest appreciation to my

loving parents and friends, who put their trust in me and
provided me with unceasing encouragement and support
 INDEX
Sr. No TOPIC Pg.
No
1 AIM
2 INTRODUCTION
3 PARTS OF TRANSISTOR
4 TYPES OF TRANSISTORS
5 HOW DO TRANSISTORS WORK?
6 ADVANTAGES OF TRANSISTOR
7 COMPUTER MEMORY CHIPS
8 SWITCHES
9 AMPLIFIERS
10 DIGITAL LOGIC CIRCUITS
11 TRANSISTORS ARE THE BUILDING
BLOCKS OF MODERN ELECTRONICS
12 CONCLUSION
13 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 AIM
TO STUDY THE IMPORTANCE, FUNCTIONING
AND USES OF A TRANSISTOR IN DAY-TO-DAY
LIFE
 INTRODUCTION
A TRANSISTOR IS A TYPE OF
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE THAT CAN BE
USED TO CONDUCT AND INSULATE
ELECTRIC CURRENT OR VOLTAGE. A
TRANSISTOR BASICALLY ACTS AS A
SWITCH AND AN AMPLIFIER. IN SIMPLE
WORDS, WE CAN SAY THAT A
TRANSISTOR IS A MINIATURE DEVICE
THAT IS USED TO CONTROL OR
REGULATE THE FLOW OF ELECTRONIC
SIGNALS.
TRANSISTORS ARE ONE OF THE KEY
COMPONENTS IN MOST OF THE
ELECTRONIC DEVICES THAT ARE
PRESENT TODAY. DEVELOPED IN THE
YEAR 1947 BY THREE AMERICAN
PHYSICISTS, JOHN BARDEEN, WALTER
BRATTAIN AND WILLIAM SHOCKLEY,
THE TRANSISTOR IS CONSIDERED ONE
OF THE MOST IMPORTANT INVENTIONS
IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE.
 PARTS OF TRANSISTOR
A TYPICAL TRANSISTOR IS COMPOSED OF THREE
LAYERS OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS OR,
MORE SPECIFICALLY, TERMINALS WHICH HELP
TO MAKE A CONNECTION TO AN EXTERNAL
CIRCUIT AND CARRY THE CURRENT. A VOLTAGE
OR CURRENT THAT IS APPLIED TO ANY ONE PAIR
OF THE TERMINALS OF A TRANSISTOR CONTROLS
THE CURRENT THROUGH THE OTHER PAIR OF
TERMINALS. THERE ARE THREE TERMINALS FOR
A TRANSISTOR. THEY ARE LISTED
BELOW:
✓ BASE: THIS IS USED TO ACTIVATE THE
TRANSISTOR.
✓ COLLECTOR: IT IS THE POSITIVE LEAD OF
THE TRANSISTOR.
✓ EMITTER: IT IS THE NEGATIVE LEAD OF THE
TRANSISTOR.
 TYPES OF TRANSISTORS
THERE ARE MAINLY TWO TYPES OF
TRANSISTORS, BASED ON HOW THEY
ARE USED IN A CIRCUIT.
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
(BJT)
THE THREE TERMINALS OF BJT ARE
THE BASE, EMITTER AND COLLECTOR. A
VERY SMALL CURRENT FLOWING
BETWEEN THE BASE AND EMITTER CAN
CONTROL A LARGER FLOW OF CURRENT
BETWEEN THE COLLECTOR AND
EMITTER TERMINAL
FURTHERMORE, THERE ARE TWO TYPES
OF BJT, AND THEY INCLUDE:
✓ P-N-P TRANSISTOR: IT IS A TYPE OF BJT
WHERE ONE N-TYPE MATERIAL IS
INTRODUCED OR PLACED BETWEEN
TWO P-TYPE MATERIALS. IN SUCH A
CONFIGURATION, THE DEVICE WILL
CONTROL THE FLOW OF CURRENT. PNP
TRANSISTOR CONSISTS OF 2 CRYSTAL
DIODES WHICH ARE CONNECTED IN
SERIES. THE RIGHT SIDE AND LEFT SIDE
OF THE DIODES ARE KNOWN AS THE
COLLECTOR-BASE DIODE AND EMITTER-
BASE DIODE, RESPECTIVELY.
✓ N-P-N TRANSISTOR: IN THIS
TRANSISTOR, WE WILL FIND ONE P-TYPE
MATERIAL THAT IS PRESENT BETWEEN
TWO N-TYPE MATERIALS. N-P- N
TRANSISTOR IS BASICALLY USED TO
AMPLIFY WEAK SIGNALS TO STRONG
SIGNALS. IN AN NPN TRANSISTOR, THE
ELECTRONS MOVE FROM THE EMITTER
TO THE COLLECTOR REGION,
RESULTING IN THE FORMATION OF
CURRENT IN THE TRANSISTOR. THIS
TRANSISTOR IS WIDELY USED IN THE
CIRCUIT.
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR
(FET).
FOR FET, THE THREE TERMINALS ARE GATE,
SOURCE AND DRAIN. THE VOLTAGE AT THE
GATE TERMINAL CAN CONTROL A CURRENT
BETWEEN THE SOURCE AND THE DRAIN.
FET IS A UNIPOLAR TRANSISTOR IN WHICH
N- CHANNEL FET OR P-CHANNEL FET ARE
USED FOR CONDUCTION. THE MAIN
APPLICATIONS OF FETS ARE IN LOW NOISE
AMPLIFIERS, BUFFER AMPLIFIERS AND
ANALOGUE SWITCHES.
 OTHER TYPES
APART FROM THESE, THERE ARE MANY
OTHER TYPES OF TRANSISTORS WHICH
INCLUDE MOSFET, JFET, INSULATED-
GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR, THIN-FILM
TRANSISTOR, HIGH ELECTRON
MOBILITY TRANSISTOR, INVERTED-T
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR (ITFET),
FAST- REVERSE EPITAXIAL DIODE
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FREDFET),
TRANSISTOR, TRANSISTOR, TUNNEL
ORGANIC SCHOTTKY FIELD-EFFECT
TRANSISTOR (OFET), DIFFUSION
TRANSISTOR, ETC.
 HOW DO TRANSISTORS WORK?
LET US LOOK AT THE WORKING OF
TRANSISTORS. WE KNOW THAT BJT
CONSISTS OF THREE TERMINALS (EMITTER,
BASE AND COLLECTOR). IT IS A CURRENT-
DRIVEN DEVICE WHERE TWO P-N
JUNCTIONS EXIST WITHIN A BJT.
ONE P-N JUNCTION EXISTS BETWEEN THE
EMITTER AND BASE REGION, AND THE
SECOND
JUNCTION EXISTS BETWEEN THE
COLLECTOR AND BASE REGION. A VERY
SMALL AMOUNT OF CURRENT FLOW
THROUGH THE EMITTER TO THE BASE CAN
CONTROL A REASONABLY LARGE AMOUNT
OF CURRENT FLOW THROUGH THE DEVICE
FROM THE EMITTER TO THE COLLECTOR.
IN THE USUAL OPERATION OF BJT, THE
BASE-EMITTER JUNCTION IS FORWARD-
BIASED, AND THE BASE-COLLECTOR
JUNCTION IS REVERSE-BIASED.
WHEN A CURRENT FLOWS THROUGH
THE BASE-EMITTER JUNCTION, THE
CURRENT WILL FLOW IN THE
COLLECTOR CIRCUIT.
IN ORDER TO EXPLAIN THE WORKING
OF THE TRANSISTOR, LET US TAKE
AN EXAMPLE OF AN NPN
TRANSISTOR. THE SAME PRINCIPLES
ARE USED FOR THE PNP
TRANSISTOR, EXCEPT THAT THE
CURRENT CARRIERS ARE HOLES,
AND THE VOLTAGES ARE REVERSED.
ADVANTAGES OF TRANSISTOR
✓ LOWER COST AND SMALLER IN SIZE.
✓ SMALLER MECHANICAL SENSITIVITY.
✓ LOW OPERATING VOLTAGE.
✓ EXTREMELY LONG LIFE.
✓ NO POWER CONSUMPTION.
✓ FAST SWITCHING.
✓ BETTER EFFICIENCY CIRCUITS CAN BE
DEVELOPED.
✓ USED TO DEVELOP INTEGRATED
CIRCUIT.
COMPUTER MEMORY CHIPS
ONE OF THE MOST COMMON USES FOR
TRANSISTORS IS IN COMPUTER MEMORY
CHIPS. THESE CHIPS STORE INFORMATION AS
ELECTRICAL CHARGES, AND THE TRANSISTORS
ACT LIKE TINY SWITCHES THAT CAN TURN THE
CHARGES ON AND OFF. THIS MAKES THEM IDEAL
FOR STORING DATA BECAUSE THEY CAN HOLD
LOADS OF INFORMATION IN A COMPACT SPACE.
FURTHERMORE, THEY ARE QUICK, WHICH IS
ESSENTIAL FOR COMPUTERS THAT NEED TO
ACCESS LARGE AMOUNTS OF DATA QUICKLY.
 SWITCHES

TRANSISTORS ARE OFTEN USED AS

SWITCHES BECAUSE THEY TURN ON AND
OFF QUICKLY. THIS MAKES THEM IDEAL
FOR DIGITAL CIRCUITS, WHERE THEY CAN
CONTROL THE FLOW OF ELECTRICITY WITH
GREAT PRECISION.
 AMPLIFIERS
ANOTHER USE FOR TRANSISTORS IS AS
AMPLIFIERS.AMPLIFIERS TAKE A SMALL
ELECRICAL SIGNAL AND AMPLIFY IT,
MAKING IT STRONG. THE FIRST
COMMERCIAL APPLICATION OF
TRANSISTORS WAS IS HEARING AID AND
POCKET RADIOS. TODAY TRANSISTOR HAVE
VARIETY OF AUDIO AMPLIFICATION
APPLICATION, SUCH AS STEREO SYSTEM
AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENT AMPLIFIERS.
 DIGITAL LOGIC CIRCUITS
TRANSISTORS ARE ALSO USED IN
DIGITAL LOGIC CIRCUITS. DIGITAL
LOGIC CIRCUITS ARE THE BUILDING
BLOCKS OF DIGITAL ELECTRONICS,
SUCH AS COMPUTERS AND CELL
PHONES. THESE CIRCUITS USE
TRANSISTORS TO PERFORM BOOLEAN
LOGIC OPERATIONS, WHICH ARE THE
BASIS FOR ALL DIGITAL COMPUTATIONS.
TRANSISTORS ARE THE BUILDING
BLOCKS OF MODERN
ELECTRONICS
WE'VE COME A LONG WAY SINCE
THE FIRST TRANSISTOR WAS
INVENTED IN 1947. TODAY,
TRANSISTORS ARE FOUND IN
EVERYTHING FROM CELL PHONES
TO CARS AND PLAY AN ESSENTIAL
ROLE IN OUR LIVES.
WHILE YOU MAY NOT GIVE THEM
MUCH THOUGHT, TRANSISTORS
ARE BEHIND THE SCENES MAKING
SURE YOUR PHONE RINGS, YOUR
CAR STARTS, AND YOUR FAVORITE
SHOW PLAYS ON TV. HOPEFULLY,
THIS HAS GIVEN YOU A BETTER
UNDERSTANDING OF ONE OF THE
MOST FUNDAMENTAL
COMPONENTS IN ALL
ELECTRONICS.
 CONCLUSION
A transistor is a three-terminal current-driven semiconductor device that
can be used to control the flow of current in an electronic circuit. Transis-
tors can be used to either amplify a weak signal, as an oscillator, or as a
switch. Owing to such a versatile range of functionalities, transistors are
used as one of the basic building blocks of integrated circuits in a wide ar-
ray of modern-day electronic devices.
The name “transistor” originates from the phrase “transfer of resistor,”
which essentially points toward the modification of resistance of the device
under external effects (current or voltage) while in operation. The three ter-
minals of a transistor can be considered to form a couple of channels (vide
infra) and a small signal (voltage or current) is applied between one pair (in-
put channel) to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals
(output channel). Such a “gain” hence allows producing a stronger output
signal from transistor, which is proportional to the input signal, and thus it
acts as an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current
on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount
of current is determined by other circuit elements.
Transistors can be basically divided into two major categories: bipolar junc-
tion transistors (BJT) and field effect transistors (FET). In a BJT, the three
terminals are labeled as base, collector, and emitter and as the term bipolar
suggests, the current carriers are both electrons and holes. Depending upon
their configuration, BJTs can be further classified as NPN or PNP-type tran-
sistors and between these two the NPN is preferred for the sake of conven-
ience. Under a typical operation, a small current is fed to the input channel
that is formed between the base and the emitter. Since the junction is for-
ward biased, the electrons (holes) flow from the emitter to base and holes
(electrons) from the base to emitter. It is worthy to state here that although
the emitter electrons (holes) become minority carriers in the base, due to the
narrow thickness of the base only a little portion of the charge carriers are
lost in recombination process and the carriers are then drawn toward the
collector–base junction which is kept under reverse biased. So, essentially
the base terminal serves as a controller to regulate or switch a much larger
current in the output channel formed between the collector and emitter ter-
minals and such an operation makes BJTs a current controlled device.
 BIBLOGRAPH
✓ BRAVE.COM
✓ GOOGLE.COM
✓ MAKEUSEOF.COM
✓ BYJUS.COM
✓ WIKIPEDIA.ORG
✓ TOPPER.COM