High Voltage and Power System Protection -

21EE71
(Theory and Practical)

Power System Protection

 MODULE-3

• Introduction to Power System Protection: Need for protective schemes, Types

of Fault and it’s Effects, Essential Qualities of Protection, Primary and
Backup Protection.
• Relay Construction and Operating Principles: Introduction,
Electromechanical Relays, Static Relays – Merits and Demerits of Static
Relays, Numerical Relays, Comparison between Electromechanical Relays
and Numerical Relays.
• Overcurrent Protection: Introduction, Time–current Characteristics, Current
Setting, Time Setting, Directional Relay, Protection of Parallel Feeders and
Ring Mains, Earth Fault, Phase Fault Protection and Combined Earth and
Phase Fault Protective Scheme, Static Overcurrent Relays, Numerical
Overcurrent Relays.
 Need for protective schemes
• An electrical power system consists of generators, transformers,
transmission and distribution lines, etc.
• Short circuits and other abnormal conditions often occur on a power
system.
• The heavy current associated with short circuits is likely to cause
damage to equipment if suitable protective relays and circuit breakers
are not provided for the protection of each section of the power
system.
• Short circuits are usually called faults by power engineers. Strictly
speaking, the term ‘fault’ simply means a ‘defect’.
• If a fault occurs in an element of a power system, an automatic
protective device is needed to isolate the faulty element as quickly as
possible to keep the healthy section of the system in normal
operation.
• If a short circuit persists on a system for a longer, it may cause
damage to some important sections of the system. A heavy short
circuit current may cause a fire.
• The system voltage may reduce to a low level and individual
generators in a power station or groups of generators in different
power stations may lose synchronism. Thus, an uncleared heavy short
circuit may cause the total failure of the system.
• A protective system includes circuit breakers, transducers (CTs and
VTs), and protective relays to isolate the faulty section of the power
system from the healthy sections.
• A circuit breaker can disconnect the faulty element of the system
when it is called upon to do so by the protective relay
• Transducers (CTs and VTs) are used to reduce currents and voltages to
lower values and to isolate protective relays from the high voltages of
the power system.
• The basic electrical quantities which are likely to change during
abnormal conditions are current, voltage, phase-angle (direction) and
frequency.
• Protective relays utilise one or more of these quantities to detect
abnormal conditions on a power system.
• Protection is needed not only against short circuits but also against any
other abnormal conditions which may arise on a power system.

• A few examples of other abnormal conditions are overspeed of generators

and motors, overvoltage, under frequency, loss of excitation, overheating
of stator and rotor of an alternator etc.

• Protective relays are also provided to detect such abnormal conditions and
issue alarm signals to alert operators or trip circuit breaker.

• A protective relay does not anticipate or prevent the occurrence of a fault,

rather it takes action only after a fault has occurred.
TYPES OF FAULTS
• Two broad classifications of faults are
(i) Symmetrical faults
(ii) Unsymmetrical faults

• Symmetrical Faults
• A three-phase (3-f) fault is called a symmetrical type of fault.
• In a 3-f fault, all the three phases are short circuited.
• There may be two situations—all the three phases may be short circuited to the
ground or they may be short-circuited without involving the ground.
• A 3-f short circuit is generally treated as a standard fault to determine the system
fault level.
• Unsymmetrical Faults
• Single-phase to Ground (L-G) Fault
• Two-phase to Ground (2L-G) Fault
• Phase-to-Phase (L-L) Fault
• Open-circuited Phases
• Winding Faults

• Simultaneous Faults
• Two or more faults occurring simultaneously on a system are known
as multiple or
• simultaneous faults. In simultaneous faults, the same or different
types of faults may
• occur at the same or different points of the system.
 • EFFECTS OF FAULTS
• The most dangerous type of fault is a short circuit as it may have the following
effects on a power system, if it remains uncleared.

• Heavy short circuit current may cause damage to equipment or any

other element of the system due to overheating and high mechanical
forces set up due to heavy current.
• Arcs associated with short circuits may cause fi re hazards. Such fi res,
resulting from arcing, may destroy the faulty element of the system.
There is also a possibility of the fi re spreading to other parts of the
system if the fault is not isolated quickly.
• There may be reduction in the supply voltage of the healthy feeders,
resulting in the loss of industrial loads.
• Short circuits may cause the unbalancing of supply voltages and
currents, thereby heating rotating machines
• There may be a loss of system stability. Individual generators in a
power station may lose synchronism, resulting in a complete
shutdown of the system. Loss of stability of interconnected systems
may also result. Subsystems may maintain supply for their individual
zones but load shedding would have to be resorted in the sub-system
which was receiving power from the other subsystem before the
occurrence of the fault.
• The above faults may cause an interruption of supply to consumers,
thereby causing a loss of revenue.
ZONES OF PROTECTION
• A power system contains generators, transformers, bus bars,
transmission and distribution lines, etc.

• There is a separate protective scheme for each piece of

equipment or element of the power system, such as
generator protection, transformer protection, transmission
line protection, bus bar protection, etc.

• The protective zones are planned in such a way that the

entire power system is collectively covered by them, and
thus, no part of the system is left unprotected.
• Adjacent protective zones must overlap each other, failing which a
fault on the boundary of the zones may not lie in any of the zones
(this may be due to errors in the measurement of actuating
quantities, etc.), and hence no circuit breaker would trip.

• If a fault occurs in the overlapping zone in a properly protected

scheme, more circuit breakers than the minimum necessary to isolate
the faulty element of the system would trip.

• A relatively low extent of overlap reduces the probability of faults in

this region and consequently, tripping of too many breakers does not
occur frequently.
PRIMARY AND BACK-UP PROTECTION
• The primary relay is the first line of defense. If due to any reason, the primary
relay fails to operate, there is a back-up protective scheme to clear the fault as a
second line of defence.
• The causes of failures of protective scheme may be due to the failure of various
elements, as mentioned in Table 1.3. The probability of failures is shown against
each item.
• The back-up relays are made independent of those factors which might cause
primary relays to fail.
• A back-up relay operates after a time delay to give the primary relay sufficient time
to operate.
• When a back-up relay operates, a larger part of the power system is disconnected
from the power source, but this is unavoidable.
• As far as possible, a back-up relay should be placed at a different station.
• Sometimes, a local back-up is also used. It should be located in such a way that it
does not employ components (VT, CT, measuring unit, etc.) common with the
primary relays which are to be backed up.
• There are three types of back-up relays:
• Remote back-up
• Relay back-up
• Breaker back-up
ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION

• The basic requirements of a protective system are as

follows:
• Selectivity or discrimination
• Reliability
• Sensitivity
• Stability
• Fast operation
 Relay Construction and Operating Principles

• The proper operation of the power system requires an efficient,

reliable and fast acting protection scheme, which basically consists of
protective relays and switching devices.
• A protective relay, acting as a brain behind the whole system, senses
the fault, locates it, and sends a command to appropriate circuit
breaker to isolate only the faulty section, thus keeping the rest of the
healthy system functional.
• It detects abnormal conditions on a power system by constantly
monitoring the electrical quantities of the system, which are different
under normal and abnormal (fault) conditions.
 The basic relay circuit is illustrated in
Fig. There are two ways in which the
circuit breaker trip coil is energized.

In one method, the station battery is

used to supply the current in the trip
coil after the relay contacts are closed
by the operation of the relay.

In the second method, as soon as the relay operates, the CT secondary current
flows through the trip coil and energizes it. This method does not require a
station battery and it is used for the protection of feeders.
Protective relays
• Protective relays are broadly classified into the
following three categories depending on the
technologies they use for their construction and
operation.
(i) Electromechanical relays
(ii) Static relays
(iii) Numerical relays
ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS

• Electromechanical relays operate by mechanical forces generated on

moving parts due to electromagnetic or electrothermic forces created
by the input quantities.
• The mechanical force results in physical movement of the moving part
which closes the contacts of the relay for its operation.
• The operation of the contact arrangement is used for relaying the
operated condition to the desired circuit in order to achieve the
required function. Since the mechanical force is generated due to the
flow of an electric current, the term ‘electromechanical relay’ is used.
• Most electromechanical relays use either electromagnetic attraction
or electromagnetic induction principle for their operation. Such relays
are called electromagnetic relays.
• The following are the principal types of electromechanical relays:
1. Electromagnetic relays
(i) Attracted armature relays, and
(ii) Induction relays
2. Thermal relays
Attracted armature relays
• Attracted armature relays are the simplest type which respond to ac as well as dc.
• These relays operate through an armature which is attracted to an electromagnet
or through a plunger which is drawn into a solenoid.
• All these relays use the same electromagnetic attraction principle for their
operation.
• The electromagnetic force exerted on the moving element, i.e., the armature or
plunger, is proportional to the square of the flux in the air gap or the square of
the current.
• In dc relays this force is constant.
• In case of ac relays, the total electromagnetic force pulsates at double the
frequency.
• The motion of the moving element is controlled by an opposing force generally
due to gravity or a spring.
• The following are the different types of construction of attracted
armature relays.
• Hinged armature type
• Plunger type
• Balanced beam type
• Moving-coil type
• Polarised moving-iron type
• Reed type
 Induction relays
• Induction relays use electromagnetic induction principle for their
operation. Their principle of operation is same as that of a single-
phase induction motor.
• Hence they can be used for ac currents only.
• Two types of construction of these Relays are fairly standard: one
with an induction disc and the other with an induction cup.
• In both types of relays, the moving element (disc or cup) is
equivalent to the rotor of the induction motor.
• There is one contrast from the induction motor, i.e., the iron
associated with the rotor in the relay is stationary.
• The moving element acts as a carrier of rotor currents, whereas the
magnetic circuit is completed through stationary magnetic elements.
• Two sources of alternating magnetic flux in which the moving
element may turn are required for the operation of induction-type
relays.
• In order to produce an operating torque, the two fluxes must have a
phase difference between them.
Induction Disc Relay
• Figure 2.9(a) shows a simple theoretical figure, whereas Fig. 2.9(b) shows
the construction which is actually used in practice.
• The rotating disc is made of aluminum. In the shaded pole type
construction, a C-shaped electromagnet is used.
• One half of each pole of the electromagnet is surrounded by a copper
band know as the shading ring.
• The shaded portion of the pole produces a flux which is displaced in space
and time with respect to the flux produced by the unshaded portion of
the pole.
• Thus two alternating fluxes displaced in space and time cut the disc and
produce eddy currents in it.
• Torques are produced by the interaction of each flux with the eddy
current produced by the other flux.
• The resultant torque causes the disc to rotate.
Watt metric type induction-disc relay
• In wattmetric type of construction, two electromagnets are used:
upper and lower one.
• Each magnet produces an alternating flux which cuts the disc.
• To obtain a phase displacement between two fluxes produced by
upper and lower electromagnets, their coils may be energised by two
different sources.
• If they are energised by the same source, the resistances and
reactance of the two circuits are made different so that there will be
sufficient phase difference between the two fluxes.
Theory of Induction Relay Torque
• Fluxes φ1 and φ 2 are produced in a disc type construction by shading
technique.
• In watt-metric type construction, φ1 is produced by the upper magnet and
φ2 by the lower magnet.
• A voltage is induced in a coil wound on the lower magnet by transformer
action.
• The current flowing in this coil produces flux φ2.
• In case of the cup type construction, φ1 and φ2 are produced by pairs of
coils, as shown in Fig. 2.13.
• The theory given below is true for both disc type and cup type induction
relays.
• Figure 2.14 shows how force is produced in a rotor which is cut by φ1 and
φ2.
• These fluxes are alternating quantities and can be expressed as follows.
 Thermal Relays
• These relays utilize the electro-thermal effect of the actuating current for
their operation.
• They are widely used for the protection of small motors against
overloading and unbalanced currents.
• The thermal element is a bimetallic strip, usually wound into a spiral to
obtain a greater length, resulting in a greater sensitivity.
• A bimetallic element consists of two metal strips of different coefficients
of thermal expansion, joined together.
• When it heats up one strip expands more than the other. This results in
the bending of the bimetallic strip.
• The thermal element can be heated directly by passing the actuating current
through the strip, but usually a heater coil is employed.
• When the bimetallic element heats up, it bends and deflects, thereby closing
the relay contacts.
• For the ambient temperature compensation, a dummy bimetallic element
shielded from the heater coil and designed to oppose the bending of the
main bimetallic strip is employed.
• When the strip is in a spiral form, the unequal expansions of the two metals
causes the unwinding of the spiral, which results in the closure of the
contacts.
STATIC RELAYS
• In a static relay, the comparison or measurement of electrical
quantities is performed by a static circuit which gives an output signal
for the tripping of a circuit breaker.

• At present static relays include a DC polarized relay as a slave relay, It

simply closes contacts.
• In a fully static relay, a thyristor is used in place of the
electromagnetic slave relay.

• A static relay (or solid-state relay) employs semiconductor diodes,

transistors, Zener diodes, thyristors, logic gates, etc. as its
components.
• Now-a-days, integrated circuits are being used in place of transistors. They
are more reliable and compact.

• Earlier, induction cup units were widely used for distance and directional
relays. Later these were replaced by rectifier bridge type static relays which
employed DC polarized relays as slave relays.

• Static relays will supersede all electromagnetic relays, except the attracted
armature relays and DC polarized relays as these relays can control many
circuit at low costs.
Merits and Demerits of Static Relays
• Low burden on CTs and VTs. The static relays consume less power and in most of
the cases they draw power from the auxiliary dc supply
• Fast response
• Long life
• High resistance to shock and vibration
• Less maintenance due to the absence of moving parts and bearings
• Frequent operations cause no deterioration
• Quick resetting and absence of overshoot
• Compact size
• Greater sensitivity as amplification can be provided easily
• Complex relaying characteristics can easily be obtained
• Logic circuits can be used for complex protective schemes
 The demerits of static relays are as follows:
• Static relays are temperature sensitive. Their characteristics may vary
with the variation of temperature. Temperature compensation can be
made by using thermistors and by using digital techniques for
measurements, etc.
• Static relays are sensitive to voltage transients. The semiconductor
components may get damaged due to voltage spikes. Filters and
shielding can be used for their protection against voltage spikes.
• Static relays need an auxiliary power supply. This can however be
easily supplied by a battery or a stabilized power supply.
 NUMERICAL RELAYS
• With the tremendous developments in VLSI and computer hardware
technology, microprocessors that appeared in the seventies have
evolved and made remarkable progress in recent years.
• Fast and sophisticated microprocessors, microcontrollers, and digital
signal processors (DSPs) are available today at low prices.
• Their application to power system protection have resulted in the
availability of compact, faster, more accurate, flexible and reliable
protective relays, as compared to the conventional ones.
• Numerical relays which are based on numerical (digital) devices e.g.
microprocessors, microcontrollers. DSPs etc. are the latest
development in the area of power system protection.
• In these relays, the analog current and voltage signals monitored
through primary transducers (CTs and VTs) are conditioned, sampled
at specified instants of time and converted to digital form for
numerical manipulation, display and recording.

• Thus, numerical relays, having monitored the current and voltage

signals through transducers, acquire the sequential samples of these
ac quantities in numeric (digital) data form through the data
acquisition system, and process the data numerically using an
algorithm to calculate the fault discriminants and make trip decisions.
• Intelligent numerical relays using artificial intelligence techniques
such as artificial neural networks (ANNs) and Fuzzy Logic Systems are
presently under active research and development stage.

• The main features of numerical relays are their economy,

compactness, flexibility, reliability, self-monitoring and self-checking
capability, adaptive capability, multiple functions, metering and
communication facilities, low burden on transducers (instrument
transformers) and improved performance over conventional relays.
The schematic diagram of a typical numerical relay
• The levels of voltage and current signals of the power system are
reduced by voltage and current transformers (VT and CT).
• The outputs of the CT and VT, transducers are applied to the signal
conditioner which brings real-world signals into digitizer.
• The signal conditioner electrically isolates the relay from the power
system, reduces the level of the input voltage, converts current to
equivalent voltage and remove high frequency components from the
signals using analog filters.
• The output of the signal conditioner are applied to the analog
interface, which includes sample and hold (S/H) circuits, analog
multiplexer and analog-to-digital (A/D) converters.
• These components sample the reduced level signals and convert their
analog levels to equivalent numbers the are stored in memory for
processing.
COMPARISON BETWEEN ELECTROMECHANICAL
RELAYS AND NUMERICAL RELAYS
 Overcurrent Protection
INTRODUCTION
• A protective relay which operates when the load current exceeds a preset value,
is called an overcurrent relay.
• The value of the preset current above which the relay operates is known as its
pick-up value.
• Overcurrent relays offer the cheapest and simplest form of protection.
• These relays are used for the protection of distribution lines, large motors, power
equipment, industrial systems, etc.
• Overcurrent relays are also used on some sub transmission lines which cannot
justify more expensive protection such as distance or pilot relays.
• A scheme which incorporates overcurrent relays for the protection of an element
of a power system, is known as an overcurrent protection scheme or overcurrent
protection.
• An overcurrent protection scheme may include one or more overcurrent relays.
 TIME-CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS
• Definite-time Overcurrent Relay
• Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
• Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay
• Inverse Definite Minimum Time Overcurrent (I.D.M.T) Relay
• Very Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay
• Extremely Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay
• Special Characteristics
 CURRENT SETTING
• The current above which an overcurrent relay should operate can be
set. Suppose that a relay is set at 5 A. It will then operate if the
current exceeds 5 A. Below 5 A, the relay will not operate.
• The operation of the relay requires a certain flux and ampere turns.
The current settings of the relay are chosen by altering the number of
turns of the current coil by means of a plug.
• The plug-setting (current-setting) can either be given directly in
amperes or indirectly as percentages of the rated current. An
overcurrent relay which is used for phase-to-phase fault protection,
can be set at 50% to 200% of the rated current in steps of 25%.
• If time-current curves are drawn, taking current in amperes on the X-axis, there
will be one graph for each setting of the relay. To avoid this complex situation, the
plug setting multipliers are taken on the X-axis. The actual r.m.s. current flowing
in the relay expressed as a multiple of the setting current (pickup current) is
known as the Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM).
 TIME SETTING
• The operating time of the relay can be set at a desired value.
• In induction disc type relay, the angular distance
by which the moving part of the relay travels for
closing the contacts can be adjusted to get different
operating time.
• There are 10 steps in which time can be set.
• The term time multiplier setting (TMS)
is used for these steps of time settings.
 REVERSE POWER OR DIRECTIONAL RELAY

Figure shows an electromechanical directional relay. A directional relay is energized

by two quantities, namely voltage and current. Fluxes f1 and f2 are set up by voltage
and current, respectively.
• Eddy currents induced in the disc by f1 interact with f2 and produce a torque. Similarly, f2 also induces eddy
currents in the disc, which interact with f1 and produce a torque. The resultant torque rotates the disc.
• The torque is proportional to VI cos f, where f is the phase angle between V and I.
• The torque is maximum when voltage and current are in phase.
• To produce maximum torque during the fault condition, when the power factor is very poor, a compensating
winding and shading are provided, as shown in Fig. 5.10(a).
• Earlier it has been mentioned that the torque produced by an induction relay is given by
T = f1 f2 sin q μ I1 I2 sin q
where f1 and f2 are fluxes produced by I1 and I2, respectively.
• The angle between f1 and f2 or I1 and I2 is q.
• If one of the actuating quantities is voltage, the current flowing in the voltage coil lags behind voltage by
approximately 90°.
• Assume this current to be I2.
• The load current I (say I1) lags V by f.
• Then the angle q between I1 and I2 is equal to (90 – f), as shown in Fig. 5.10(b).
• T = I1 I2 sin (90 – f) μ I1 I2 cos f μ VI cos f
 Induction cup type directional relay
• An induction cup construction can also be used to
produce a torque proportional to VI cos f.
• The arrangement is shown in Fig. 5.11.
• Two opposite poles are energized by voltage and
the other two poles by current.
• Here voltage is a polarizing quantity.
• The polarizing quantity is one which produces one
of the two fluxes. The polarizing quantity is taken
as a reference with respect to the other quantity
which is current in this case.
• Torque produced is positive when cos f is positive,
i.e. f is less than 90°. When f is more than 90°
(between 90° and 180°), The torque is negative.
 PROTECTION OF PARALLEL FEEDERS
• Figure 5.15 shows an overcurrent protective scheme for parallel feeders.
• At the sending end of the feeders (at A and B), non-directional relays are required.
• The symbol ´ indicates a non-directional relay.
• At the other end of feeders (at C and D), directional overcurrent relays are required.
• The arrow mark for directional relays placed at C and D indicate that the relay will
operate if current flows in the direction shown by the arrow.
• If a fault occurs at F, the directional relay at D trips, as the direction of the current is
reversed.
• The relay at C does not trip, as the current flows in the normal direction.
• The relay at B trips for a fault at F.
• Thus, the faulty feeder is isolated and the supply of the healthy feeder is maintained.
• If non-directional relays are used at C and D, both relays placed at C
and D will trip for a fault at F.
• This is not desired as the healthy feeder is also tripped.
• Due to this very reason relays at C and D are directional overcurrent
relays.
• For faults at feeders, the direction of current at A and B does not
change and hence relays used at A and B are non-directional.
PROTECTION OF RING MAINS
• Figure 5.16(a) shows an overcurrent scheme for the protection of a ring
feeder.
• Figure 5.16(b) is another way of drawing the same scheme.
• Compared with radial feeders, the protection of ring feeders is costly and
complex.
• Each feeder requires two relays.
• A non-directional relay is required at one end and a directional relay at the
other end.
• The operating times for relays are determined by considering the grading,
first in one direction and then in the other direction, as shown in Fig. 5.16.
• If a fault occurs at F1 as shown in Fig. 5.16(a),
• The relays at C’ and D’ will trip to isolate the faulty feeder.
• The relay at C will not trip as the fault current is not flowing in its
tripping direction though its operating time is the same as that of C’.
• Similarly, the relays at B and D will not trip as the fault currents are
not in their tripping direction, though their operating time is less than
the operating time of B’ and D’ respectively.
• Figure 5.16(b) is an alternative way of drawing the same scheme.
• In this figure, loads, though present are not shown on buses A, B and
D so as to make the figure simple to understand.
• If a fault occurs at F2, the relays at A’ and D will trip.
• Fig. 5.16(c) shows a scheme involving even greater number of
feeders.
 EARTH FAULT AND PHASE FAULT PROTECTION

• A fault which involves ground is called an earth fault. Examples are—single line to
ground (L-G) fault and double line to ground (2L-G) fault.
• Faults which do not involve ground are called phase faults.
• The protective scheme used for the protection of an element of a power system
against earth faults is known as earth fault protection.
• Similarly, the scheme used for the protection against phase faults is known as
phase fault protection.
• Relays which are used for the protection of a section (or an element) of the
power system against earth faults are called earth fault relays.
• Similarly, relays used for the protection of a section of the power system against
phase faults are called phase fault relays or overcurrent relays.
• The operating principles and constructional features of earth fault relays and
phase fault relays are the same.
• They differ only in the current levels of their operation.
• Earth Fault Protective Schemes
• An earth fault relay may be energized by a residual current. As shown
in Fig. 5.17(a), ia, ib and ic are currents in the secondary of CTs of
different phases. The sum (ia + ib + ic) is called residual current.
• Figure 5.17(b) and 5.17(c) show an earth fault relay used for the
protection of transformer and an alternator, respectively.
• When an earth fault occurs, zero-sequence current flows through the
neutral. It actuates earth fault relay.
• Figure 5.17(d) shows the connection of an earth fault relay using a
special type of CT known as a core-balance CT, which encircles the
three-phase conductors.
 COMBINED EARTH FAULT AND PHASE FAULT PROTECTIVE SCHEME

• Figure 5.18 shows two overcurrent relays

(phase to phase fault relays) and one earth
fault relay.

• When an earth fault occurs, the burden on

the active CT is that of an overcurrent relay
(phase fault relay) and the earth fault relay
in series.

• Thus, the CT burden becomes high and

may cause saturation.
 PHASE FAULT PROTECTIVE SCHEME

• Figure 5.19 shows three overcurrent

relays for the protection of a three-
phase system.
• This scheme is mainly for the
protection of the system against
phase faults.
• If there is no separate scheme for
earth fault protection, the
overcurrent relays used in this
scheme will also sense earth faults
but they will be less sensitive.
DIRECTIONAL EARTH FAULT RELAY
• For the protection against ground faults, only one directional overcurrent relay is
required.
• Its operating principle and construction is similar to the directional overcurrent
relays discussed earlier.
• It contains two elements, a directional element and an I.D.M.T. element.
• The directional element has two coils. One coil is energized by current and the
other by voltage.
• The current coil of the directional element is energised by residual current and
the potential coil by residual voltage, as shown in Fig. 5.20(a).
• This connection is suitable for a place where the neutral point is not available.
• If the neutral of an alternator or transformer is grounded, connections are made
as shown in Fig. 5.20(b).
• If the neutral point is grounded through a VT, the voltage coil of the directional
earth fault relay may be connected to the secondary of the VT.
• The I.D.M.T. element has a plug setting of 20% to 80%.
 STATIC OVERCURRENT RELAYS

• Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

• Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
• Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay
• Directional Overcurrent Relay
Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay
Directional Overcurrent Relay
 NUMERICAL OVERCURRENT RELAYS
• A protection scheme which incorporates numerical overcurrent relays
for the protection of an element of a power system, is known as a
numerical overcurrent protection scheme or numerical overcurrent
protection.

(i) Microprocessor-based overcurrent relays

(ii) Microcontroller-based overcurrent relays
(iii) Digital Signal Processor (DSP)-based overcurrent relays
(iv) Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA)-based overcurrent relays.
(v) Artifi cial Neural Network (ANN) based numerical relays.