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Chapter Pages

6.8 Sensitivity ... 168

6.8.1 Effect of Transfer Function Parameter variations in an
Open-loop Control System ... 168
6.8.2 Effect of Forward Path Transfer Function Parameter variations
in a Closed-loop Control System ... 168
6.8.3 Sensitivity of Overall Transfer Function M(s) with respect to
Forward Path Transfer Function G(s) ... 169
6.8.4 Sensitivity of Overall Transfer Function M(s) with respect to
Feedback Path Transfer Function ... 170
6.8.5 Effect of Feedback on Time Constant of a Control System ... 172
6.9 Control Actions ... 173
6.9.1 Proportional Control ... 173
6.9.2 Derivative Control ... 173
6.9.3 Integral Control ... 178
6.9.4 Proportional Plus Derivative Plus Integral Control (PID Control) ... 181
6.9.5 Derivative Feedback Control ... 181
6.10 Solved Examples ... 185
Problems ... 212

7. STABILITY ANALYSIS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS 216 362

7.1 Stability in Terms of Characteristic Equation of a Control System ... 218

7.1.1 Definition of Stability ... 218
7.1.2 Absolute and Relative Stability ... 218
7.1.3 Location of the Roots of Characteristic Equation in s-plane as
related to Time Response and Prediction of Absolute Stability
therefrom ... 218
7.2 To Determine the Number of Roots having Positive Real Parts for a
Polynomial ... 219
7.3 Hurwitz Determinants of a Polynomial ... 220
7.4 Routh-Hurwitz Criterion ... 221
7.5 Solved Examples : Routh-Hurwitz Criterion ... 222
7.6 Nyquist Criterion ... 229
7.6.1 Procedure for Mapping from s-plane to G(s) H(s)-plane ... 229
7.6.2 Determination from the Nyquist Plot the Number of Zeros of
G(s) H(s) which are located inside a Specified Region in s-plane ... 231
7.6.3 Application of Nyquist Criterion to Determine Stability of a
Closed-loop Control System ... 231
7.7 Gain Margin and Phase Margin ... 242
7.8 Relative Stability from Nyquist Plot ... 244
7.9 Gain Phase Plot ... 245
7.10 Closed-loop Frequency Response of a Unity Feedback Control System from
Nyquist Plot ... 246
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Chapter Pages

7.11 Constant Magnitude Loci : M-Circles ... 247

7.12 Constant Phase Angles Loci : N-Circles ... 249
7.13 Closed-Loop Frequency Response of Control System from M and N-Circles ... 250
7.14 Gain Adjustment using M-Circle ... 251
7.15 Nichols Chart ... 254
7.16 Cutoff Frequency and Bandwidth ... 257
7.17 Solved Examples : Nyquist Criterion ... 259
7.17.1 Inverse Nyquist Plot ... 284
7.17.2 1/M-Circles (Inverse M-Circles) and Constant Phase Angle Loci ... 287
7.17.3 Gain Adjustment Using Inverse Polar Plot ... 288
7.18 Bode Plot ... 289
7.18.1 Bode Plot (Logarithmic Plot) for Transfer Functions ... 289
7.18.2 Graphs for the Gain Term K ... 290
1
7.18.3 Graphs for the Term ... 290
( jω ) N
7.18.4 Graphs for the Term (1 + jωT) ... 291
1
7.18.5 Graphs for the Term ... 292
(1 + jωT )
7.18.6 Initial Slope of Bode Plot ... 295
7.18.7 Determination of Static Error Coefficients from Initial Slope of
Bode Plot ... 297
2
ωn
7.18.8 Graphs for Quadratic Term 2 2 ... 298
[(ω n ω ) + j 2ζ ω n ω ]
7.18.9 Procedure for Drawing Bode Plot and Determination of
Gain Margin, Phase Margin and Stability ... 301
7.18.10 Bode Plot for Time Delay Element : e sT ... 304
7.18.11 Minimum Phase, Non-minimum Phase and all
Pass Transfer Function ... 306
7.19 Solved Examples : Bode Plot ... 308
7.20 Correlation between Transient Response and Frequency Response ... 315
7.21 Root Locus ... 319
7.22 Salient Features of Root Locus Plot ... 323
7.23 The Procedure for Plotting Root Locus ... 323
7.24 Solved Examples : Root Locus ... 324
7.25 Root Contours ... 354
Problems ... 360

8. COMPENSATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS 366 416

8.1 Phase-Lead Compensation ... 367

8.2 Phase-Lag Compensation ... 369
8.3 Phase-Lag-Lead Compensation ... 371
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Chapter Pages

8.4 Concluding Remarks ... 372

8.5 Feedback Compensation ... 372
8.6 Solved Examples ... 375
8.7 Compensation Network Design: Root Locus Approach ... 380
8.7.1 Phase Lead Compensator Design ... 381
8.7.2 Phase Lag Compensator Design ... 394
8.7.3 Lag-Lead Compensator Design ... 404
Problems ... 414

9. INTRODUCTION TO STATE SPACE ANALYSIS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS 417 498

9.1 State Space Representation ... 418

9.2 The Concept of State ... 419
9.3 State Space Representation of Systems ... 420
9.4 Block Diagram for State Equation ... 427
9.5 Transfer Function Decomposition ... 428
9.5.1 Direct Decomposition ... 429
9.5.2 Cascade Decomposition ... 431
9.5.3 Parallel Decomposition ... 432
9.5.4 Parallel Decomposition of a Transfer Function having
Repeated Roots of its Characteristic Equation ... 433
9.5.5 Transfer Function Decomposition Using State Signal Flow Graph ... 434
9.6 Solution of State Equation ... 438
9.6.1 Determination of State Transition Matrix ... 440
9.6.2 Properties of State Transition Matrix ... 450
9.7 Transfer Matrix ... 450
9.8 Controllability ... 451
9.9 Observability ... 454
9.10 Solved Examples ... 456
9.11 State Variable Feedback ... 490
Problems ... 494

10. SAMPLED DATA CONTROL SYSTEMS 499 545

10.1 Sampler ... 501

10.2 Sampling Process ... 502
10.3 Laplace Transform of Sampled Function ... 503
10.4 z-Transform ... 504
10.5 z-transform of Some Useful Functions ... 505
10.6 Inverse z-transform ... 508
10.7 Hold Circuit ... 515
10.8 Reconstruction of Signal : Minimum Sampling Frequency ... 518
10.9 Pulse Transfer Function (z-transfer Function) ... 519