1

Work, Energy and Power

Scalar Product or Dot Product (h) In case of unit vector,
Dot product of two vectors is defined as the . = 1 x 1 x cos = 1
product of their magnitudes and the cosine of the . = . = . = . =1
angle between the two. (i) In case of orthogonal unit vectors and
(or)
; . = . = . =0
The dot product is the product of the
magnitude of one of the vector quantities and the (j) If  and 
P Pˆi  Py ˆj  Pz kˆ ˆ Q Q i  Q y ˆj  Q z kˆ
scalar component of second vector in the direction of 
the first vector  
 P.Q  Pˆi  Py ˆj  Pz kˆ . Q ˆi  Q y ˆj  Q z kˆ

Q
= (PxQx + PyQy + PzQz)


(k) The product of vectors is possible between
P vectors of different kind.
The scalar product of the two vectors, and
Application:
is defined as . Here is the
angle between and . Geometrically, Q cos is the projection of onto
The angle between the two vectors and and P cos is the projection of onto as
is given by shown. So . is the product of the magnitude

P.Q   
of and the component of along and vice
cos     P.Q
P Q
1
 cos     versa.
 P Q 

 Q

PROPERTIES OF SCALAR Q
Q s (a)
co
PRODUCT : Q
 
(a) The Dot product between two   
P  P
vectors obeys commutative law. i.e., P
 Q cos  
Component of along
(b) The Dot product obeys distributive law,
= Q cos  =
i.e.,

(c) It is always a scalar which is positive if P̂.Q

angle between the vectors is acute (i.e. < 90°) and (b) The vector component of
negative if angle between them is obtuse (i.e. 90° along
< 180°) is Q cos   
(c) Component of along =P cos P.Q
(d) Scalar product of two vectors will be
 Q
maximum when cos = max = 1, i.e., = 0°, i.e., 
vectors are parallel. ˆ
P.Q

 (P.Q)max PQ
(d) The vector component of along =

(e) = P (Q cos ) = Q (P cos ) 
ˆ  P.Q Q
P cos Q ˆ  P.Q
ˆ Q
ˆ  
(f) If the scalar product of two non zero vectors Q
vanishes, then the vectors are orthogonal. Examples of Scalar Product:
(perpendicular).  
i.e., = 900, P.Q PQ cos 90 0 0 a) The scalar product of force and
(g) The scalar product of a vector by itself is displacement, is called workdone by that force.
termed as self dot product and is given by
= PP cos = P2
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If a force acts on a body and displaces it  Work done by a force is numerically equal to the
through a displacement , the work done by the product of the displacement and component of the
force along the direction of the displacement.
force  It is a scalar quantity.
  It is dot product of force and displacement vector.
W F.S F(Scos ) (F cos )S Units :
Absolute unit of work :
Workdone is maximum when force and erg or dyne – cm (CGS)
displacement are in the same direction (the angle joule or Newton – m (SI)
between them = 0) and is equal to FS. 1 joule = 107 erg
If force and displacement are perpendicular Gravitational unit of work :
gram - cm (CGS)
to each other, the workdone by the force is zero.
1 g – cm = 1g wt 1 cm = 981 dyne – cm
b) Dot product between force and velocity kilo gram – m (SI)
vecotors gives power 1 kg – m = 1 kg wt 1 m = 9.81 newton – m

F.S  Dimension :
i.e., power = t
F.V M L T-2 L = M L2 T-2

 Work may be positive or negative or zero.

Work :  Work is three types.
Whenever a constant force is acting on a body and 1. Positive work
that produces a displacement along the direction of 2. Negative work
the force then work is said to be done by the force. 3. Zero work
Note : Force is external or resultant or net or 1. Positive work :
unbalanced. If the angle between force and displacement
 Work done : is less than 900 then work is positive.
Example : In freely falling body, work done by
Let us consider a force is acting on a body
The gravity on the body is positive.
and produces a displacement in a horizontal 2. Negative work :
direction. If angle between force and displacement is
Work done by the force is the dot product of more than 900 and less than 1800 then work is
the force and displacement. negative.
Example : In vertically upwards, work done by
the gravity on the body is negative.
3. zero work :
If the angle between force and displacement
is 900 then work is zero.
If  = 900 then  W = 00 ( cos 900 = 0)
W = FS cos
Note : (i) If
Where  = angle between force and displacement.
 W = F (S cos)
= force X component of displacement along 
direction of force Note : (ii) if
W=0
Eg :
1) Work done by centripetal force or tension in a
string or gravitational force or coulomb force is zero
when a body is revolving in circular path.
The work done by a force is equal to the
product of force and component of the displacement
along the direction of the force.
OR
 W = (F cos) S
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2) If a man is carrying a suitcase on his head and Let us consider a body of mass ‘m’ is placed on
moving along a horizontal plane then the work done ground. It is lifted to a height ‘h’ by a force F. The
by gravitational force is zero. minimum force required to lift the body is weight.

3) A man jumped from a tall building with a suitcase

on his head then, work done is zero

 W = F.S = 0 θ=
Work done by the force
Energy:

 Energy is the capacity to do the work.

 It is a scalar quantity. W =mg h cos
 Units :erg (CGS) W =mg h
joule (SI) This work is stored in a body in the form of potential
 1Joule = 107 erg energy.
Practical units : U = mg h
1. electron volt (e .V) Relation between force and potential energy
Electron volt : The energy acquired by an electron function :
when it passess through a potential difference of one Let us consider a force F acting on a body and
volt. produces a displacement x in the direction of force,
1 eV = 1.602 X 10-19 J then work done by the force.
2. calorie : The energy released by a food stuff or fuel
of one gram when it is completely burn is called one
calorie.
1 calorie = 4.16 joule
3. kilo watt hour (KWH)
1 KWH = 3.6X 106 joule
 Dimension : ML2T-2
 Types of energy : If x 0, we have
There are many types of energy in this universe.
They are
1) Solar energy
2) Electrical energy
3) Wind energy
4) Tidal energy SPRING :
5) Nuclear energy If the force acting on a spring increases (or decreases)
6) Mechanical energy the restoring force inside of the spring also increases
 Mechanical energy : (or decreases) but it is opposite to applied force.
Mechanical energy is divided into two types.
i) Potential energy
ii) Kinetic energy
 Potential energy :
The energy possessed by the body by the virtue of its Spring or force constant (K) :
position or configuration is known as potential The restoring force per unit elongation or
energy. compression of a spring is called spring or force
1. Gravitational potential energy constant.
2. Elastic potential energy
3. Electrostatic potential energy Note :
Eg : 1) The force which developed between the molecules
1) Energy of water stored in dam. and oppose to change its shape and size is called
2) Energy of stretched spring. restoring force. It is opposite to applied force.
3) Energy of bent bow, etc….
Gravitational potential energy:
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2) Spring constant K depends on (i) nature of the If xi = 0, xf = x

material of the spring, (ii) length of the spring (iii)
number of turns of springs.
3) Spring constant is inversely proportional to length
Note :
of the spring If a body oscillates about a mean position its velocity
at extreme position is zero so P.E is maximum.
Elastic potential energy stored in a spring : At mean position potential is zero but remains same.
Spring force is a variable force and it is a conservative Kinetic energy = Potential energy
force. UK = U P
Let us consider a spring and mass ‘m’ system resting
on smooth horizontal surface. One end of the spring is
attached to fixed support as per figure.

 Kinetic energy :
Energy possessed by the body by virtue of its motion
is called kinetic energy.
Eg :
1) Flying bird 3) Fired bullet
2) Moving train 4) Flowing water etc…..

 Derivation :
Let us consider a body of mass ‘m’ is at rest. By
applying constant force acting on a body it acquires a
velocity ‘v’ after traveling a distance ‘s’ with uniform
Let a spring of spring constant ‘k’ is elongated or acceleration ‘a’ along a straight line.
compressed by distance ‘x’.
The restoring force developed in spring is .
The external force is always equal and opposite to
restoring force = - F=kx
Consider a small displacement dx, work done dw = F
dx From v2 – u2 = 2as
Total work done in displacing spring through ‘x’ is v2 – 00 = 2as

 Work done by the force on the body,

W = F S cos

W W = ma S cos

This work is stored in a body in the form of elastic

potential energy. (  = 0)
So, U =
Note:
If a spring extended from an initial displacement to
a final displacement , the workdone by the spring
force is
This work is stored in a body in the form of kinetic
energy.
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Therefore EK = W  work done by the force on the body, W = change in

kinetic energy
Hence work – energy theorem is proved.
Note :
Note :
 Kinetic energy is the measure of work done.
 If a body of mass ‘m’ at a height h1 from the ground.
 Vector form of It is lifted to a height h2 with a force ‘F’ (mg).
 Potential energy = mgh
Relation between kinetic energy and linear
momentum : Work done by the force F on the body,
Let us consider a body of mass ‘m’ is moving with a
velocity ‘v’. = mg (h2 – h1)
Momentum of a body : P = mv = mg h2 – mg h1
P2 = m2 v2 = final potential energy – initial
potential energy
W = Pf - Pi
 W =  P.E.
Kinetic energy of a body :  work done by the force on the body,
W = change in potential energy.
Hence work – energy theorem is
proved.
Work - Energy Theorem :
Note :
Statement :
1. Work done by a force is zero then the velocity of a
Work done by a constant force acting on a body is
body remains same (K.E is constant).
equal to change in energy or kinetic energy or
2. Work done by a force is negative then the velocity
potential energy of the body.
of a body decreases (K.E also decreases).
Proof :
3. Work done by a force is positive then the velocity
Let us consider a body of mass ‘m’ is moving with an
of a body increases (K.E also increases).
initial velocity ‘u’.
A constant force ‘F’ is acting on a body in the
Conservative force and non-conservative force
direction of motion, it acquires a final velocity v, by
 Conservative force :
covering the displacement s.
If the amount of work done by or against a force
depends only on the initial and final positions of a
body then the force is called conservative force.
Work done by or against the conservative force is
path independent.
Work done by or against the conservative force
From the equation of motion
around a closed path is zero.
v2 – u2 = 2as
Ex : Gravitational force, Electric force, Magnetic
Acceleration of the body, force etc…
 Non-conservative force :
 Work done by the force on the body, If the amount of work done by or against a force
W = ma.s depends on the path followed by a body then the
force is called non-conservative force.
Work done by or against the non-conservative force is
independent of initial and final position.
Work done by or against the non-conservative force
around a closed path is not zero.
Ex : Frictional force, Viscous force, etc…
W = final kinetic energy – initial kinetic energy
W = K f – Ki
W =  K.E.
Laws of Conservation of Energy :
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Statement : The height of the body from the ground, hl = h - x

Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but  Potential energy, PEB = mg (h – x)
can be converted from one form to another form. From the equation of the motion, v2 – u2 = 2as
If no external force is acting on a system. The total u=0 s=x a=g
energy of the system remains same. vB = ?
v2 – u2 = 2as
vB2 – 0 = 2gx
Verification of Law of Conservation of Energy in vB2 = 2gx
case of freely falling body :
 kinetic energy,

= mgx
 total energy, EB = P.E. + K.E.
= mg (h – x) + mgx
= mg h – mg x + mg x
 EB = mg h

Let us consider a body of mass ‘m’ is freely falling At point C

from a height ‘h’. Height of the body from the ground, h = 0
To verify law of conservation of energy consider  potential energy, PEC = mg h
three points A, B and C on its path. = mg(0)
Let VA and VC are velocities of the body at B and C. =0
Initial velocity, u = 0
Displacement, s = h
Acceleration, a = g
From equation of motion, v2 – u2 = 2as

 = 2gh

Kinetic energy,

At point A
Height of the body from the ground = h  KEC = mg h
Potential energy, PEA = mg h  Total energy, EC = K.E. + P.E.
In freely falling, initial velocity, u = 0 = mg h + 0
 EC = mg h
 kinetic energy,

=0  from equations (1), (2) and (3) the total energy of

 Total energy, EA = PEA + KEA the system is constant.
= mg h + 0 Hence the law of conservation of energy proved in
= mg h case of freely falling.
Force – displacement graph (F – S graph)
A graph is drawn displacement on x-axis and force on
y-axis is called force - displacement graph.
At point B
The distance covered by the body from A to B = x
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1. If force is constant then F – S graph is a straight

line parallel to displacement axis. Illustrations of inter – conversion of mass and
energy :
(i) Annihilation of Matter. When an electron (e-)
and a position (e+) combine with each other, they
annihilate or destroy each other. The mass of electron
and position is converted into energy according to
2) If force is variable F – S graph is as shown in Einstein’s equation (E = mc2). This energy is released
figure in the form of two - rays. The process of
annihilation of matter is represented as : e- + e+  +

Each photon has energy = 0.51 MeV.

It may be noted that two are emitted
instead of one photon to conserve the linear
momentum.
(ii) Pair Production : This process is the reverse of
annihilation of matter. In this case, a photon ( ) of
energy equal to 1.02 MeV interacts with a nucleus of
Area under the F – S graph gives work done by the an atom and give rise to electron (e-) and positron (e+).
force. Thus, energy is converted into matter. The process is
Work done = F . s = Area under F – s graph. represented as shown in figure.
Work done by a variable force : (iii) Nuclear Bomb : Nucleus is made up of protons
Let us consider a variable force is acting on a body and neutrons (collectively called nucleus). The sum of
and produces displacement from xi to xf the mass of the nucleus is more than the mass of the
1) If the displacement (x) is very small force F(x) is nucleus. The difference in the mass of nucleons and
almost constant then work done W = F(x) x nucleus is called mass effect. The energy
2)_ Area under F – s graph gives work done. corresponding to the mass defect is called binding
3) If we divide total area into a number of small energy which holds the nucleons in the nucleus. When
rectangular strips as shown in figure. the nucleus is split up, this every is released in the
4) Area of each strip gives work done by the force in form of - radiations and heat energy. This is the
the small displacement (width of the strip). basic principle of a nuclear bomb or atomic bomb.
5) Sum of areas of all rectangular strips gives total E = mc2, c = 3.0 X 108 m/s m = mass
work done. E = energy
W = W1 + W2 +…………..
W = F1x1 + F2x2 +…………..

W=

6) If the displacement approaches zero, then the

number of terms in the sum increases without limit, so
Power :
that area under the curve gives a definite value.
The time rate of doing work is known as power.
It is a scalar.


Mass – energy equivalence :

According to Einstein, mass and energy are inter –
convertible. That is, mass can be converted into
energy and energy can be converted into mass. The
energy (E) equivalent to mass m is given by the
relation
E = mc2 where c = 3 X 108 ms-1, velocity of light
in vacuum or air. P = Fvcos
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The dot product of force and velocity is known as  Inelastic collisions are two types :
power. i ) Perfect inelastic collision
 instantaneous power: ii) Semi elastic collision
 Perfect elastic collision :
The collision in which both law of conservation
Units : of momentum and law of conservation of K.E. holds
C.G.S : erg/s good is called elastic collision.
S.I : watt (W) or J/s In this collision shape of the bodies remains
same. During this collision there is no deformation of
 1W = 1 J/s the bodies.
1 H.P. = 746 W Eg :1) Collision between the atoms or fundamental
particles.
D.F : [P] = = ML2T-3 2) Collision between billiard balls (nearly
perfect). Co-efficient of restitution e = 1.
Note :  Perfect inelastic collision :
1 KWH = 3.6 X 106 J. The collision in which only law of conservation
KWH is a unit of energy. of momentum holds good (but not K.E.) is called
Efficiency( ): The ratio of output power to input perfect inelastic collision.
power is called efficiency. In this type of collision, shape of the bodies
changes.
Deformation takes place during the collision
Colliding bodies stick together and moves
with the same velocity after collision.
Eg: 1) When dough is hit to wall it sticks there.
Efficiency can also be defined as the ratio of useful 2)While walking in mud, mud sticks to our foot.
workdone to total energy spent. e =0
If is the efficiency f motor then total input power  Semi - elastic collision :
The collision in which only law of conservation
of momentum holds good (but not K.E.) is called
Semi-elastic collision In this type of collision, shape
Collisions : of the bodies changes.
Deformation takes place during the collision.
 The strong interaction in small interval of time in After collisions, bodies moves with different
which change in momenta takes place is called velocities.
collision. ‘e’ value lies between 0 and 1.
   During collision, shape of the bodies may or may Eg: Majority of collisions in daily life.
not change.  Derivation for velocities of colliding bodies in
 During collision bodies may or may not be in head -on one dimensional collision (perfect elastic
physical contact. collision):
 During collision colliding bodies may or may not Let us consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 along
move with same speed. a straight line in same direction with initial velocities
Basing on co-ordinates collisions are three types : u1 and u2 (u1 > u2). After some time they collide with
1) One dimensional or head on or direct each other. Let v1 and v2 be their velocities after
collision: collision.
The collisions in which the colliding particle
moves along a straight line before and after collision
is called one dimensional collision.
2) Oblique collision: In a collision, if the motion of
colliding particles before and after the collision are
not along the initial line of motion then the collision is
said to be oblique collision. The oblique collision may
be two dimensional or three dimensional. According to law of conservation of Momentum :
 Based on the energy collisions are of two types: m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2  (1)
1) Perfect elastic collision 2) Inelastic collision m1u1 – m1v1 = m2v2 – m2u2
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 m1(u1 – v1) = m2(v2 – u2)  (2) And Eq(8)

According to law of conservation of Energy:

Kinetic energy of m1 before collision

2 2 2 2
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
m1u12 – m1v12 = m2v22 – m2u22
i) Kinetic energy of m1 after collision


(3)
Eq (3) / (2) gives

Fraction of kinetic energy retained by is

 u1 + v1 = v2 + u2  (4)
ii) Kinetic energy of m2 after collision

 Relative velocity of approach before collision is Fraction of kinetic energy transferred by m1 to m2 is

equal to relative velocity of separation after collision.

From equation (4)  Perfect inelastic collision:

v1 = v2 + u2 – u1  (5) Two bodies of masses m1 moving with velocity u1
v2 = u1 + v1 – u2  (6) and m2 at rest collide inelastically and move together
after the collision with a common velocity v.
Substituting (6) in (1) According to law of conservation of momentum
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2 (u1 + v1 – u2) m1u1 = (m1 + m2)V
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2u1 + m2v1 – m2u2
m1u1 – m2u1 + m2u2 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v1
(m1 – m2) u1 + 2m2u2 = (m1 + m2) v1
(m1 + m2) v1 = ( m1 – m2) u1 + 2m2u2
Initial K.E
Final K.E


(7)
Loss in K.E is
Similarly, by substituting Eq (5) in Eq (1)

 (8)

Note :
A body of mass m1, moves with kinetic energy K
undergoes head on elastic collision with another body
of mass m2, at rest.
Eq(7)

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Coefficient of Restitution(e): Let and be the

velocities of the bodies respectively before collision
and and are their final velocities after collision
and acting along same line in the same direction.
The coefficient of restitution(e) is defined as
the ratio of the relative velocity of separation
after the collision to the relative velocity
of approach before collision.

For perfectly elastic collision e=1 and

For perfectly inelastic collision e=0.
For other collisions, e lies between 0 and 1.

 Semi elastic collision :

 Two dimensional collision :

Let two particles of masses m1 and m2 are moving
along x – axis with an initial velocity u1 and u2
respectively. After collision they are moving in a
plane with velocities v1 and v2 respectively as shown
in figure.

Along x – axis :

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 cos + m2v2 cos

Along y – axis :
0 = m1v1 sin - m2v2 sin