Research Methodology

Research Hypothesis
Definition of Hypothesis:
 Defined as the proposed explanation for a phenomenon.
 A hypothesis is an assumption that is made based on some evidence.
This is the initial point of any investigation that translates the research
questions into predictions. It includes components like variables,
population, and the relation between the variables. A research
hypothesis is a hypothesis that is used to test the relationship between
two or more variables.
Types of Hypothesis:
 Simple Hypothesis
 Complex Hypothesis
 Null Hypothesis (H0)
 Alternative Hypothesis
 Directional hypothesis
 Non-directional Hypothesis
 Causal or Associative Hypothesis
 Empirical Hypothesis
 Statistical Hypothesis
Characteristics of Hypothesis:

Following are the characteristics of the hypothesis:

 The hypothesis should be clear and precise to consider it to be reliable.

 If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it should be stating
the relationship between variables.
 The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for conducting
more tests.
 The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very simple and it
should also be understood that the simplicity of the hypothesis is not
related to its significance.

Functions of Hypothesis

Following are the functions performed by the hypothesis:

 Hypothesis helps in making an observation and experiments possible.

 It becomes the start point for the investigation.
 Hypothesis helps in verifying the observations.
 It helps in directing the inquiries in the right direction.

Sources of Hypothesis

Following are the sources of hypothesis:

 The resemblance between the phenomenon.

  Observations from past studies, present-day experiences and from the
competitors.
 Scientific theories.
 General patterns that influence the thinking process of people.

Simple Hypothesis

It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single

independent variable. For example – If you eat more vegetables, you will lose
weight faster. Here, eating more vegetables is an independent variable,
while losing weight is the dependent variable.

Complex Hypothesis

It shows the relationship between two or more dependent variables and two
or more independent variables. Eating more vegetables and fruits leads to
weight loss, glowing skin, and reduces the risk of many diseases such as
heart disease.

Directional Hypothesis

It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a particular

outcome. The relationship between the variables can also predict its nature.
For example- children aged four years eating proper food over a five-year
period are having higher IQ levels than children not having a proper meal.
This shows the effect and direction of the effect.

Non-directional Hypothesis

It is used when there is no theory involved. It is a statement that a

relationship exists between two variables, without predicting the exact
nature (direction) of the relationship.

Null Hypothesis

It provides a statement which is contrary to the hypothesis. It’s a negative

statement, and there is no relationship between independent and dependent
variables. The symbol is denoted by “HO”.

Associative and Causal Hypothesis:

Associative hypothesis occurs when there is a change in one variable

resulting in a change in the other variable. Whereas, the causal hypothesis
proposes a cause and effect interaction between two or more variables.

Examples of Hypothesis

Following are the examples of hypotheses based on their types:

 Consumption of sugary drinks every day leads to obesity is an example

of a simple hypothesis.
  All lilies have the same number of petals is an example of a null
hypothesis.
 If a person gets 7 hours of sleep, then he will feel less fatigue than if he
sleeps less. It is an example of a directional hypothesis.

How will Hypothesis help in the Scientific Method?

Researchers use hypotheses to put down their thoughts directing how the
experiment would take place. Following are the steps that are involved in the
scientific method:

 Formation of question
 Doing background research
 Creation of hypothesis
 Designing an experiment
 Collection of data
 Result analysis
 Summarizing the experiment
 Communicating the results

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Q1 What is hypothesis?

A hypothesis is an assumption made based on some evidence.

Q2 Give an example of simple hypothesis?

Consumption of sugary drinks daily results in obesity. This is an example of a
simple hypothesis.
Q3 What are the types of hypothesis?

Types of hypothesis are:

 Simple hypothesis
 Complex hypothesis
 Directional hypothesis
 Non-directional hypothesis
 Null hypothesis
 Associative and Casual hypothesis

Q4 State true or false: Hypothesis is the initial point of any

investigation that translates the research questions into a
prediction.
True.
Q5 Define complex hypothesis.

A complex hypothesis shows the relationship between two or more

dependent variables and two or more independent variables.
Formulation of Research Question – Stepwise Approach

Formulation of research question (RQ) is an essentiality before starting any

research.

Aim of Formulation of Research Questions:

It aims to explore an existing uncertainty in an area of concern and points to

a need for deliberate investigation. It is, therefore, pertinent to formulate a
good RQ. The present paper aims to discuss the process of formulation of RQ
with stepwise approach. The characteristics of good RQ are expressed by
acronym “FINERMAPS” expanded as feasible, interesting, novel, ethical,
relevant, manageable, appropriate, potential value, publish ability, and
systematic. A RQ can address different formats depending on the aspect to
be evaluated. Based on this, there can be different types of RQ such as
based on the existence of the phenomenon, description and classification,
composition, relationship, comparative, and causality. To develop a RQ, one
needs to begin by identifying the subject of interest and then do preliminary
research on that subject. The researcher then defines what still needs to be
known in that subject and assesses the implied questions. After narrowing
the focus and scope of the research subject, researcher frames a RQ and
then evaluates it. Thus, conception to formulation of RQ is very systematic
process and has to be performed meticulously as research guided by such
question can have wider impact in the field of social and health research by
leading to formulation of policies for the benefit of larger population.

A good research question (RQ) forms backbone of a good research, which in

turn is vital in unraveling mysteries of nature and giving insight into a
problem identifies the problem to be studied and guides to the methodology.

It leads to building up of an appropriate hypothesis (Hs). Hence, RQ aims to

explore an existing uncertainty in an area of concern and points to a need for
deliberate investigation. A good RQ helps support a focused arguable thesis
and construction of a logical argument. Hence, formulation of a good RQ is
undoubtedly one of the first critical steps in the research process, especially
in the field of social and health research, where the systematic generation of
knowledge that can be used to promote, restore, maintain, and/or protect
health of individuals and populations. Basically, the research can be
classified as action, applied, basic, clinical, empirical, administrative,
theoretical, or qualitative or quantitative research, depending on its purpose.

Research plays an important role in developing clinical practices and

instituting new health policies. Hence, there is a need for a logical scientific
approach as research has an important goal of generating new claims.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTION

“The most successful research topics are narrowly focused and carefully
defined but are important parts of a broad-ranging, complex problem.”
A good RQ is an asset as it:

 Details the problem statement

 Further describes and refines the issue under study
 Adds focus to the problem statement
 Guides data collection and analysis
 Sets context of research.

Hence, while writing RQ, it is important to see if it is relevant to the existing

time frame and conditions. For example, the impact of “odd-even” vehicle
formula in decreasing the level of air particulate pollution in various districts
of Delhi.

A good research is represented by acronym FINERMAPS

 Feasible
 Interesting
 Novel
 Ethical
 Relevant
 Manageable
 Appropriate
 Potential value and publishability
 Systematic.

FINERMAPS
 Feasible: Feasibility means that it is within the ability of the investigator to
carry out. It should be backed by an appropriate number of subjects and
methodology as well as time and funds to reach the conclusions. One needs to
be realistic about the scope and scale of the project. One must have access to
the people, gadgets, documents, statistics, etc. One should be able to relate the
concepts of the RQ to the observations, phenomena, indicators, or variables that
one can access. One should be clear that the collection of data and the
proceedings of project can be completed within the limited time and resources
available to the investigator. Sometimes, a RQ appears feasible, but when
fieldwork or study gets started, it proves otherwise. In this situation, it is
important to write up the problems honestly and to reflect on what has been
learned. One should try to discuss with more experienced colleagues or the
supervisor so as to develop a contingency plan to anticipate possible problems
while working on a RQ and find possible solutions in such situations.
 Interesting: This is essential that one has a real grounded interest in one's RQ
and one can explore this and back it up with academic and intellectual debate.
This interest will motivate one to keep going with RQ.
 Novel: The question should not simply copy questions investigated by other
workers but should have scope to be investigated. It may aim at confirming or
refuting the already established findings, establish new facts, or find new
aspects of the established facts. It should show imagination of the researcher.
Above all, the question must be simple and clear. The complexity of a question
can frequently hides unclear thoughts and lead to a confused research process.
A very elaborate RQ, or a question which is not differentiated into different parts,
may hide concepts that are contradictory or not relevant. This needs to be clear
 and thought through. Having one key question with several subcomponents will
guide your research.
 Ethical: This is the foremost requirement of any RQ and is mandatory to get
clearance from appropriate authorities before stating research on the question.
Further, the RQ should be such that it minimizes the risk of harm to the
participants in the research, protect the privacy and maintain their
confidentiality, and provide the participants right to withdraw from research. It
should also guide in avoiding deceptive practices in research.
 Relevant: The question should of academic and intellectual interest to people in
the field you have chosen to study. The question preferably should arise from
issues raised in the current situation, literature, or in practice. It should establish
a clear purpose for the research in relation to the chosen field. For example,
filling a gap in knowledge, analyzing academic assumptions or professional
practice, monitoring a development in practice, comparing different approaches,
or testing theories within a specific population are some of the relevant RQs.
 Manageable (M): It has the similar essence as of feasibility but mainly means
that the following research can be managed by the researcher.
 Appropriate (A): RQ should be appropriate logically and scientifically for the
community and institution.
 Potential value and publishability (P): The study can make significant health
impact in clinical and community practices. Therefore, research should aim for
significant economic impact to reduce unnecessary or excessive costs.
Furthermore, the proposed study should exist within a clinical, consumer, or
policy-making context that is amenable to evidence-based change. Above all, a
good RQ must address a topic that has clear implications for resolving important
dilemmas in health and health-care decisions made by one or more stakeholder
groups.
 Systematic (S): Research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a
specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules though it
does not rule out creative thinking.
Example of RQ: Would the topical skin application of oil as a skin barrier reduces
hypothermia in preterm infants? This question fulfills the criteria of a good RQ,
that is, feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant.

Types of research question

A RQ can address different formats depending on the aspect to be evaluated.

For example:

 Existence: This is designed to uphold the existence of a particular

phenomenon or to rule out rival explanation, for example, can
neonates perceive pain?

 Description and classification: This type of question encompasses

statement of uniqueness, for example, what are characteristics and
types of neuropathic bladders?

 Composition: It calls for breakdown of whole into components, for

example, what are stages of reflux nephropathy?
  Relationship: Evaluate relation between variables, for example,
association between tumor rupture and recurrence rates in Wilm's
tumor

 Descriptive comparative: Expected that researcher will ensure that

all is same between groups except issue in question, for example, are
germ cell tumors occurring in gonads more aggressive than those
occurring in extragonadal sites?

 Causality: Does deletion of p53 leads to worse outcome in patients

with neuroblastoma?

 Causality comparative: Such questions frequently aim to see effect

of two rival treatments, for example, does adding surgical resection
improves survival rate outcome in children with neuroblastoma than
with chemotherapy alone?

 Causality Comparative interactions: Does immunotherapy leads to

better survival outcome in neuroblastoma Stage IV S than with
chemotherapy in the setting of adverse genetic profile than without it?
(Does X cause more changes in Y than those caused by Z under certain
condition and not under other conditions).

How to develop a research question

 Begin by identifying a broader subject of interest that lends itself to

investigate, for example, hormone levels among hypospadias
 Do preliminary research on the general topic to find out what research
has already been done and what literature already exists. Therefore,
one should begin with “information gaps” (What do you already know
about the problem? For example, studies with results on testosterone
levels among hypospadias
 What do you still need to know? (e.g., levels of other reproductive
hormones among hypospadias)
 What are the implied questions: The need to know about a problem will
lead to few implied questions? Each general question should lead to
more specific questions (e.g., how hormone levels differ among
isolated hypospadias with respect to that in normal population)
 Narrow the scope and focus of research (e.g., assessment of
reproductive hormone levels among isolated hypospadias and
hypospadias those with associated anomalies)

 Once question has been framed, one should evaluate it. This is to realize if
these would be effective RQs or if they need more revising
 Is RQ clear? With so much research available on any given topic, RQs must be
as clear as possible in order to be effective in helping the writer direct his or
her research
 Is the RQ focused? RQs must be specific enough to be well covered in the
space available
  Is the RQ complex? RQs should not be answerable with a simple “yes” or “no”
or by easily found facts. They should, instead, require both research and
analysis on the part of the writer
 Is the RQ one that is of interest to the researcher and potentially useful to
others? Is it a new issue or problem that needs to be solved or is it
attempting to shed light on previously researched topic?
 Is the RQ researchable? Consider the available time frame and the required
resources. Is the methodology to conduct the research feasible?
 Is the RQ measurable and will the process produce data that can be
supported or contradicted?
 Is the RQ too broad or too narrow?
 Create Hs: After formulating RQ, think where research is likely to be
progressing? What kind of argument is likely to be made/supported?
What would it mean if the research disputed the planned argument? At
this step, one can well be on the way to have a focus for the research
and construction of a thesis. Hs consists of more specific predictions
about the nature and direction of the relationship between two
variables. It is a predictive statement about the outcome of the
research, dictate the method, and design of the research.
 Understand implications of your research: This is important for
application: whether one achieves to fill gap in knowledge and how the
results of the research have practical implications, for example, to
develop health policies or improve educational policies.

Brainstorm/Concept map for formulating research question

 First, identify what types of studies have been done in the past?
 Is there a unique area that is yet to be investigated or is there a
particular question that may be worth replicating?
 Begin to narrow the topic by asking open-ended “how” and “why”
questions
 Evaluate the question
 Develop a Hypothesis (Hs)
 Write down the RQ.

Writing down the research question

 State the question in your own words

 Write down the RQ as completely as possible.

For example, Evaluation of reproductive hormonal profile in children

presenting with isolated hypospadias)

 Divide your question into concepts. Narrow to two or three concepts

(reproductive hormonal profile, isolated hypospadias, compare with
normal/not isolated hypospadias–implied)
 Specify the population to be studied (children with isolated
hypospadias)
 Refer to the exposure or intervention to be investigated if any
 Reflect the outcome of interest (hormonal profile).
Another example of a research question

Would the topical skin application of oil as a skin barrier reduces

hypothermia in preterm infants? Apart from fulfilling the criteria of a good
RQ, that is, feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant, it also details
about the intervention done (topical skin application of oil), rationale of
intervention (as a skin barrier), population to be studied (preterm infants),
and outcome (reduces hypothermia).

Other important points to be heeded to while framing research question

1. Make reference to a population when a relationship is expected among a

certain type of subjects
2. RQs and Hs should be made as specific as possible
3. Avoid words or terms that do not add to the meaning of RQs and Hs
4. Stick to what will be studied, not implications
5. Name the variables in the order in which they occur/will be measured
6. Avoid the words significant/” prove”
7. Avoid using two different terms to refer to the same variable.

Table 1

Potential problems and solutions while making research question

GOING BEYOND FORMULATION OF RESEARCH QUESTION–THE PATH

AHEAD

Once RQ is formulated, a Hs can be developed. Hs means transformation of a

RQ into an operational analog. It means a statement as to what prediction
one makes about the phenomenon to be examined. More often, for case–
control trial, null Hs is generated which is later accepted or refuted.

A strong Hs should have following characteristics:

 Give insight into a RQ

 Are testable and measurable by the proposed experiments
  Have logical basis
 Follows the most likely outcome, not the exceptional outcome.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESIS

Research question 1

 Does reduced gap between the two segments of the esophagus in

patients of esophageal atresia reduces the mortality and morbidity of
such patients?

Hypothesis-1

 Reduced gap between the two segments of the esophagus in patients

of esophageal atresia reduces the mortality and morbidity of such
patients
 In pediatric patients with esophageal atresia, gap of <2 cm between
two segments of the esophagus and proper mobilization of proximal
pouch reduces the morbidity and mortality among such patients.

Research question 2:

 Does application of mitomycin C improves the outcome in patient of

corrosive esophageal strictures?

Hypothesis-2

In patients aged 2–9 years with corrosive esophageal strictures, 34

applications of mitomycin C in dosage of 0.4 mg/ml for 5 min over a period of
6 months improve the outcome in terms of symptomatic and radiological
relief.

Table 2

Examples of few bad (left-hand side column) and few good (right-hand side)
research questions.
RESEARCH QUESTION AND STUDY DESIGN

RQ determines study design, for example, the question aimed to find the
incidence of a disease in population will lead to conducting a survey; to find
risk factors for a disease will need case–control study or a cohort study. RQ
may also culminate into clinical trial. For example, effect of administration of
folic acid tablet in the perinatal period in decreasing incidence of neural tube
defect. Accordingly, Hs is framed.

Appropriate statistical calculations are instituted to generate sample size.

The subject inclusion, exclusion criteria and time frame of research are
carefully defined. The detailed subject information sheet and pro forma are
carefully defined. Moreover, research is set off few examples of research
methodology guided by RQ:

 Incidence of anorectal malformations among adolescent females

(hospital-based survey)
 Risk factors for the development of spontaneous pneumoperitoneum in
pediatric patients (case–control design and cohort study)
 Effect of technique of extra mucosal ureteric reimplantation without
the creation of submucosal tunnel for the preservation of upper tract in
bladder exstrophy (clinical trial).

The results of the research are then be available for wider applications for
health and social life

CONCLUSION

A good RQ needs thorough literature search and deep insight into the
specific area/problem to be investigated. A RQ has to be focused yet simple.
Research guided by such question can have wider impact in the field of
social and health research by leading to formulation of policies for the
benefit of larger population.