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Chapter 1
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Problem 1.1. Using the Clebsch–Gordan coefficients for I = 1/2

plus I = 1, obtain the amplitudes displayed in Equations (1.2)–(1.4).
Solution 1.1. Write down the kets for |πp using the Clebsch–
Gordan coefficients of Table 1.2. Recall that the C–G coefficients
are a real unitary transformation, so the same matrix element goes
|I1 , I2  → |I, Iz  as |I, Iz  → |I1 , I2 .
 +
pπ = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; +1/2, +1 = |I = 3/2, Iz = +3/2 ;
 −
pπ = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; +1/2, −1
√
(|I = 3/2, Iz = −1/2 − 2 |I = 1/2, Iz = −1/2)
= √ ;
3
 0
nπ = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; −1/2, 0
√
( 2 |I = 3/2, Iz = −1/2 + |I = 1/2, Iz = −1/2)
= √ .
3
Then calculate the amplitudes, keeping in mind that the I = 3/2
and I = 1/2 states are orthogonal:
 +   
π p H3/2 + H1/2 π + p = A3/2 ;
    A3/2 + 2A1/2
π − p H3/2 + H1/2 π − p = ;
3
√
 −    2(A3/2 − A1/2 )
π p H3/2 + H1/2 π 0 n = .
3

1
 2 Introduction to High Energy Physics: Problems and Solutions

The magnitude squares of these amplitudes give Equations (1.2),

(1.3), and (1.4).
Problem 1.2. The deuteron has I-spin zero, and this leads to sev-
eral easy tests of charge independence. Show that I-spin conservation
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a. σ(π + + d → p + p)/σ(π − + d → n + n) = 1.
b. σ(p + d → He3 + π 0 )/σ(p + d → H 3 + π + ) = 1/2 (He3 and H3 are
an I-spin doublet).
c. σ(d + d → He4 + π 0 ) = 0 (He4 has I-spin zero).

Solution 1.2. The hypothesis of charge independence means

that the reactions depend on I, but not Iz , so σ(π + d → p + p) =
σ(π − d → n + n). The initial state p + d must have I = 1/2, because
the deuteron has I = 0. He3 and H 3 are an I-spin doublet with
Iz = +1/2 and Iz = −1/2 respectively.
 3 0
He π = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; +1/2, 0
 
2 1
= |I = 3/2, Iz = +1/2 − |I = 1/2, Iz = +1/2 ;
3 3
and
 3 +
H π = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; −1/2, +1
 
1 2
= |I = 3/2, Iz = +1/2 + |I = 1/2, Iz = +1/2 ;
3 3
leading to the prediction that the H 3 π + cross-section is twice as large
as He3 π 0 . For reaction (c), the π 0 has I-spin one, so the final state
is forbidden.
Problem 1.3. Strange particle reactions. The K’s are doublets, and
the Σ’s are triplets, with the Λ a singlet. Obtain the following rela-
tions:

a. π + p|H3/2 + H1/2 |Σ+ K +  = A3/2 .

√
b. π − p|H3/2 + H1/2 |Σ− K +  = 1/ 3(A3/2 + 2A1/2 )
√ √
c. π − p|H3/2 + H1/2 |Σ0 K 0  = 2(A3/2 − A1/2 )/ 3.
 Chapter 1 3

Identical in form to π p scattering, except the amplitudes are not the

same.
d. K̄ 0 p|H1 + H0 |Λπ +  = A1 . √
e. K̄ 0 n|H1 + H0 |Λπ 0  = A1 / 2.
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Solution 1.3. For the strange particles the mesons and baryons
switch roles: K  s have I = 1/2 and Σ s have I = 1, with Λ I = 0 and
Ξ I = 1/2. The amplitudes are:
 + +
K Σ = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; +1/2, +1 = |I = 3/2, Iz = +3/2 ;
 + −
K Σ = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; +1/2, −1
 
1 2
= |I = 3/2; Iz = −1/2 − |I = 1/2, Iz = −1/2
3 3
 0 0
K Σ = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; −1/2, 0
 
2 1
= |I = 3/2, Iz = −1/2 + |I = 1/2, Iz = −1/2 .
3 3
These kets, plus those in problem 1.1 give the amplitudes (a),
(b), and (c). For (d) and (e), Λ π has I = 1, so the I1 =
1/2, I2 = 1/2  C–G coefficients come into play. The  0initial

states are: K̄ p = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1/2; +1/2, +1/2 and K̄ n =
 0

|I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1/2; +1/2, −1/2.

Problem 1.4. G parity. This is a combination of charge conjugation
and a rotation of 180◦ about the y axis in I-spin space: G = C ×eiπIy .
An even number of pions has even G parity, and an odd number odd.
For I = 1, the Iy matrix is
⎛ √ ⎞
0
√ −i/ 2 0√
⎝i/ 2 0 −i/ 2⎠.
√
0 i/ 2 0
Show that Iy3 = Iy . This does not mean that Iy2 = 1, because Iy is
a singular matrix, as are all matrices for integer I-spin. This polyno-
mial can be factored: Iy (Iy2 −1) = 0, with roots that are the eigenval-
ues ±1 and 0. This is a property of all of the I-spin representations.
For I = 1/2, Iy2 − 1/4 = 0, and for I = 3/2, (Iy2 − 9/4)(Iy2 − 1/4) = 0.
 4 Introduction to High Energy Physics: Problems and Solutions

All three operators Ix , Iy , and Iz have the same eigenvalues, and obey
the same polynomial equation in a given representation. Now show
that for I = 1:
eiθIy = 1 + (cos θ − 1)Iy2 + i sin θIy . (1.1)
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eiπIy = 1 − 2Iy2 (1.2)

which is the matrix:
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ +⎞ ⎛ − ⎞
0 0 1 π π
⎝0 −1 0⎠ ⎝ π 0 ⎠ = ⎝−π 0 ⎠ (1.3)
1 0 0 π− π+
Now because π 0 → γ + γ, C|π 0  = +|π 0 , so for consistency C|π +  =
−|π − . Then G|π = −|π for all three charge states.
Solution 1.4. G Parity problem. Matrix multiplication gives
Iy3 = Iy :
⎛ √ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
0 −i/ 2 0 1/2 0 −1/2
⎜ √ √ ⎟ 2 ⎜ ⎟ 3
Iy = ⎝i/ 2 0 −i/ 2⎠ y ⎝ 0
; I = 1 0 ⎠; Iy = Iy .
√
0 i/ 2 0 −1/2 0 1/2

For the second part expand eiθIy and collect terms:

eiθIy = 1 + iθIy + (iθIy )2 /(2!) + (iθIy )3 /(3!) + (iθIy )4 /(4!)
+ (iθIy )5 /(5!) + · · ·
= 1 + (−θ 2 /2! + θ 4 /4! − θ 6 /6! + · · · )Iy2
+ i(θ − θ 3 /3! + θ 5 /5! + · · · )Iy ;
gives Equation (1.1):
⎛ ⎞
0 0 1
⎜ ⎟
eiθIy = 1 + (cos θ − 1)Iy2 + i sin θIy ; eiπIy = 1 − 2Iy2 = ⎝0 −1 0⎠.
1 0 0
Then defining   the  G  parity as G = Ceiπ Iy and C |π +  =
− |π −  , C π 0 = + π 0 gives G |n π = (−1)n |nπ.
 Chapter 1 5

Problem 1.5. Evaluate the scattering amplitude f (θ) — Equation

(1.5) — for S and P waves only, i.e. l = 0 and l = 1. Show that the
angular distribution has the form:
dσ/dΩ = |f (θ)|2 = A + B × cos θ + C × cos2 θ. (1.4)
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Evaluate the coefficients A, B, and C in terms of δ0 and δ1 . Now

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assume δ0 = 0, and δ1 = π/2, and calculate the total cross-section

for relative momentum k = 265 MeV/c. Compare your result with
the peak value at 1235 MeV in Figure 1.1. The formula 1 GeV−2 =
0.389 mb is useful here. There is a small error in that (2l + 1) should
be replaced by (2j + 1), or multiply by four instead of three.
Solution 1.5. For S and P waves,
1
|f (θ)|2 = 2 (sin2 δ0 +6 sin δ0 sin δ1 cos(δ1 − δ0 ) cos θ+9 sin2 δ1 cos2 θ).
k
For δ0 = 0 and δ1 = π/2 and k = 265 MeV/c:
12π
σtot = 2 = 200 mb.
k
This is the peak value of the cross section near 0.3 GeV/c in the top
plot of Figure 1.1.
Problem 1.6. Practice with the eight Gell-Mann matrices and
I-spin, V -spin, U -spin. Work out some commutation rules:
a. [Iz , V± ] = ±V± /2;
b. [U+ , U− ] = 3Y /2 − Iz ≡ 2Uz ;
c. [V+ , V− ] = 3Y /2 + Iz ≡ 2Vz ;
d. [U+ , V− ] = I− .
Solution 1.6. Use [λi /2, λj /2] = ifijk λk /2, and the totally anti-
symmetric structure constants fijk in Table 1.3, together with the
definitions in Equation 1.22:
I± = (λ1 ± iλ2 )/2; U± = (λ6 ± iλ7 )/2; V± = (λ4 ± iλ5 )/2;
√
Iz = λ3 /2; Y = λ8 / 3.
√
Iz = Vz − Uz ; Vz = (3Y + 2Iz )/4 = ( 3λ8 + λ3 )/4;
√
Uz = ( 3λ8 − λ3 )/4.
 6 Introduction to High Energy Physics: Problems and Solutions

We will work out some examples:

[Iz , V± ] = [λ3 /2, λ4 /2] ± i[λ3 /2, λ5 /2] = (λ4 ± iλ5 )/4 = V± /2;
and
[U+ , U− ] = [λ6 + iλ7 , λ6 − iλ7 ]/4 = −i[λ6 , λ7 ]/2
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√
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= −2i[λ6 /2, λ7 /2] = −λ3 /2 + 3λ8 /2.

 0 √
Problem 1.7. Check the matrix elements for π  V− |K +  = 1/ 2
    √
and π 0  U− K 0 = −1/ 2.
 0
Solution
 0 1.7.
 0 Octet matrix elements for π  V− |K + , and
 
π U− K . Refer to Figure 1.7 for the U± and V± octet opera-
tors. K + and K 0 are at the top, and π 0 together with η 0 are in
the center. The convention adopted for the quarks is that all three
  for u| V− |s etc. equal +1, and for the antiquarks
matrix elements
only s̄| U+ d¯ equals −1. So we may operate on the quark content
of the K mesons:
 
V− K + = V− |us̄ = |ss̄ + |uū ;
 0     √ √
π  V− K + = (uū| + dd¯)(|ss̄ + |uū)/ 2 = 1/ 2.
The K 0 analysis is the same, except a minus sign appears on the
antiquarks due to the above convention.
Problem 1.8. Use color symmetry to show that the baryons around
the outside of the octet must have the like quarks in a triplet spin
state. Define the baryon magnetic moment:
μB  = S = 1/2, Sz = +1/2| q μq |S = 1/2, Sz = +1/2, where
the sum is over the three quark magnetic moments. The magnetic
moment is written as
μq = gq × (q/2mq ) × S,
where the Lande g factor is defined by this equation, and q = eq × e.
Obtain the proton spin wave function:
√
p ↑= 2/3 d ↓ u ↑ u ↑ −(d ↑ (u ↑ u ↓ +u ↓ u ↑))/ 6,
in an obvious notation. Calculate the z component of the magnetic
moment, and show that μp = 4/3μu − μd /3. This formula is true for
 Chapter 1 7

all octet baryons with two like flavor quarks: μB = 4/3μ2 − 1/3μ1 .
Use this, plus μu = −2μd (same mass and g factor, charges eq = +2/3
and −1/3) to show that μp /μn = −3/2. Look up the numbers and
compare with experiment. From the values of μp and μn calculate the
quark moments μu and μd . The baryons in the middle of the octet
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Σ0 and Λ have the same quark content (uds). Assume orthogonality,

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and (ud) in a triplet spin state for Σ0 matching (uu) and (dd) for Σ+
and Σ− . Then the spin and magnetic moment of the Λ comes only
from the strange quark. Use the measured value of μΛ to obtain μs ,
and then calculate μΣ+ , μΣ− , μΞ0 , and μΞ− . Compare results with
experiment.
Solution 1.8. Look at the proton. The two u quarks must be anti-
symmetric in the exchange of all quantum numbers to obey the Pauli
exclusion principle. There are three colors, and 3 × 3 = 6 + 3∗ . The
3∗ couples to the 3 colors of the d quark to form a singlet color-
less baryon state. (3 × 3∗ = 8 + 1). The 6 is symmetric under the
exchange of the two quarks, so the 3∗ must be antisymmetric to be
orthogonal. Color takes care of the Pauli principle, so the spin state
has to be even, that is S = 1. With this information, and the handy
C–G Table 1.2, the wave function for a proton with spin up is:

2 d↑
p ↑= d ↓ u ↑ u ↑ −(u ↑ u ↓ +u ↓ u ↑) √ .
3 6
The minus sign agrees with the phase choice in Table 1.2. Then the
proton magnetic moment in the quark model is:
   
  4μu − μd
  2 2
p↑ μq  p ↑ = (2μu − μd ) + μd = .
  3 6 3
q

The ms = 0 diquark adds a factor of two, but no net magnetic

moment. This formula is correct for all the baryons around the out-
side of the octet. The Λ in the center has the magnetic moment of
the strange quark, because the up and down quarks are in a singlet
state. Assuming mu = md , the ratio μu /μd = −2, so in the quark
model:
μp 4μu − μd 9 2.79
= = − = −1.5; measured numbers − = −1.46.
μn 4μd − μu 6 1.91
 8 Introduction to High Energy Physics: Problems and Solutions

The measured values are in units of the nuclear magneton μn =

e/(2Mp c). In these units we can solve for the up quark magnetic
moment from the proton moment:
18
μp = (4/3 + 1/6)μu ; or μu = μp = 1.86 nuclear magnetons.
27
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Assuming that the up quark g factor is two, and the charge is +2/3
giving a mass ratio mu /Mp = 0.36, close to expectations for a con-
stituent quark mass. The Particle Data Group lists the baryon mag-
netic moments, that are compared to our quark model calculations
in the following Table:
Baryon Magnetic Moments
Name μ in nuclear magnetons quark model
Λ −0.613 ± 0.004 input
Σ+ 2.458 ± 0.01 +2.68
Σ− −1.160 ± 0.025 −1.04
Ξ0 −1.250 ± 0.014 −1.43
Ξ− −0.6507 ± 0.0025 −0.50
Ω− −2.02 ± 0.05 −1.83
So with no special effort to optimize the numbers, the agreement
with the quark model assuming μd = −μu /2 and μs = μΛ is good
to about 20% — not too bad. A prediction of the model is that
all of the neutral baryons have negative magnetic moments, consis-
tent with experiment. The assumption μd = −μu /2 can be relaxed
by solving the proton and neutron moment equations for μu and
μd separately. This gives slightly different numbers. For the strange
quark one could solve μΣ+ or μΣ− for μs , or try μs = μΩ /3, instead
of μs = μΛ ; or attempt an overall fit of three quark moments to eight
measured baryon moments. Nothing works perfectly, but all of the
fits are reasonable.
The Σ0 is left out. It has a short lifetime for electromagnetic
decay Σ0 → Λ + γ, so the quantity  that can be measured is the
0 
transition magnetic moment Σ ↑ (μu + μd + μs ) · ẑ |Λ ↑. The mea-
sured quantity is the square of this matrix element, that is propor-
tional to the cross-section for Σ0 production in a Λ beam via one
 Chapter 1 9

photon exchange — a process called the Primakoff effect after Henry

Primakoff who first proposed it. P.C. Petersen et al., Phys Rev Lett
57, 949, (1986) quoted a number 1.59±0.05±0.07 nuclear magnitons.
This matrix element can be calculated in our quark model:
(μuz + μdz + μsz ) |Λ ↑
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= (μu (u ↑ d ↓ +u ↓ d ↑)s ↑ −μd (u ↑ d ↓ +d ↑ u ↓)s ↑

√
+ μs (u ↑ d ↓ −u ↓ d ↑)s ↑)/ 2.
The quark content of the Σ0 is:

 0  √
Σ ↑ = 2 s ↓ u ↑ d ↑ −(u ↑ d ↓ +u ↓ d ↑)s ↑ / 6.
3
Hence
 0  1
Σ ↑ (μuz + μdz + μsz ) |Λ ↑ = √ (μd − μu ) = −1.6.
3
This is consistent with the magnitude quoted by Petersen et al. The
sign has not been measured.
Problem 1.9. ΔQ = ΔS rule. This rule applies to the weak decays
of strange particles. We have seen how ΔQ = ΔS forbids the beta
decay Σ+ → n+e+ +νe (ΔQ = −1, ΔS = +1). Apply the ΔQ = ΔS
rule to the following:
a. Ξ0 → Σ+ + e− + ν¯e ;
b. Ξ0 → Σ− + e+ + νe ;
c. K 0 → π + + e− + ν¯e ;
d. K 0 → π − + e+ + νe .
Solution 1.9. Draw the baryon and meson octets to understand
the ΔQ = ΔS rule. If the states can be connected by a single SU3
operator, then ΔQ = ΔS; otherwise no. Hence a = yes, b = no,
c = no, and d = yes. K̄ 0 → π + is OK. The decay rates for K 0 → π −
and K̄ 0 → π + are slightly different, that is a CP violation discussed
in Chapter 9.
Problem 1.10. |ΔI| = 1/2 rule. This rule also applies to weak
decays of strange particles. For some tests it is useful to use a ‘spu-
rion’, a particle that has only I-spin 1/2 and nothing else (no energy,
 10 Introduction to High Energy Physics: Problems and Solutions

spin, etc.). Add in a spurion, and conserve I-spin, and viola! You
have the |ΔI| = 1/2 rule. Start with some easy ones. w is the decay
rate. Show that the following are consequences of the |ΔI| = 1/2
rule, and compare with experiment:
w(Λ → p + π − )/w(Λ → n + π 0 ) = 2.
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a.
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b. w(K 0 → π + π − )/w(K 0 → π 0 π 0 ) = 2.
c. Add a spurion to Σ+ and√Σ− to obtain the amplitudes:
1. A(sp + Σ+ → p + π 0 ) = 2(A3/2 + A1/2 )/3 ;
2. A(sp + Σ+ → n + π + ) = (A3/2 − 2A1/2 )/3;
3. A(sp + Σ− → n + π − ) = A3/2 .

√ These are complex numbers that satisfy a ‘triangular relation’

2A0 + A+ − A− = 0, where the subscript refers to the charge of the
pion. Look up the numbers. The magnitudes of the three amplitudes
are nearly the√same: |A0 | = |A+ | = |A− |, so it is an isosceles right
triangle, with 2A0 the hypotenuse.
Solution 1.10. |ΔI| = 1/2 rule. The Λ decay is easy, because I = 0,
so the pπ − and nπ 0 must both have I = 1/2.
 −
pπ = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; +1/2, −1
 
1 2
= |3/2; −1/2 − |1/2, −1/2 ;
3 3
 0
nπ = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; −1/2, 0
 
2 1
= |3/2, −1/2 + |1/2, −1/2 .
3 3
This gives part (a). Part (b) K → ππ is a bit tricky. Two pions can
have I = 2, 1, 0, and only I = 2 is forbidden by the |ΔI| = 1/2 rule.
However, for π 0 π 0 I = 1 is forbidden, because the relevant Clebsch–
Gordan coefficient vanishes. See Table 1.2. It is natural to assume
that only I = 0 is available to π + π − as well, and that gives the
prediction.
 + −
π π = |I1 = 1, I2 = 1; +1, −1
  
1 1 1
= |2, 0 + |1, 0 + |0, 0 ;
6 2 3
 Chapter 1 11

and
 − +
π π = |I1 = 1, I2 = 1; −1, +1
  
1 1 1
= |2, 0 − |1, 0 + |0, 0 .
6 2 3
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π π = |I1 = 1, I2 = 1; 0, 0 = 2 |2, 0 − 1 |0, 0 .

3 3
+ −
The coefficients for I = 0 are the same, but π π has two ways to go,
and π 0 π 0 only one. The spurion is a cute idea, originally proposed
by one of the founders of quantum mechanics and also one of my
best professors in graduate school — Gregor Wentzel.
 0
pπ = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; +1/2, 0
 
2 1
= |3/2, +1/2 − |1/2, +1/2 ;
3 3
 +
nπ = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; −1/2, +1
 
1 2
= |3/2, +1/2 + |1/2, +1/2 ;
3 3
 −
nπ = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; −1/2, −1 = |3/2, −3/2 .
For the spurion, both ±1/2 are possible, but m1 + m2 has to match
on both sides of the amplitude.
 
sp + Σ+ = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; +1/2, +1 = |3/2, +3/2 ;
or
 
sp + Σ+ = |I1 = 1, I2 = 1/2; −1/2, +1
 
1 2
= |3/2, +1/2 + |1/2, +1/2 .
3 3
 
sp + Σ− = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; −1.2, −1 = |3/2, −3/2 ;
or
 
sp + Σ− = |I1 = 1/2, I2 = 1; +1/2, −1
 
1 2
= |3/2, −1/2 − |1/2, −1/2 .
3 3
 12 Introduction to High Energy Physics: Problems and Solutions

Matching the magnetic quantum numbers gives:

√
   0 2
sp + Σ H3/2 + H1/2 pπ = A0 =
+
(A3 − A1 );
3
    1 2
sp + Σ+  H3/2 + H1/2 nπ + = A+ = A3 + A1 ;
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3 3
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and
   
sp + Σ−  H3/2 + H1/2 nπ − = A− = A3 .
√ √
So 2A0 = A− − A+ , or 2A0 + A+ − A− = 0. Since these are
complex numbers, they form a closed triangle in a two-dimensional
complex space. From the Particle Data Group we have:
Σ+ 0.8 × 10−10 sec lifetime
pπ 0 51% branching fraction
nπ + 48% branching fraction
Σ− 1.5 × 10−10 sec lifetime
nπ − 100% branching fraction
The total Σ+ decay rate is twice the Σ−√ , so all three of the decay
amplitudes have the same magnitude, and 2A0 just fits on an isosce-
les right triangle. There is more symmetry to the problem, exhibited
in Problem 6.14. The amplitudes are real, but there are two of them
because parity is not conserved. A+ is pure P wave, l = 1, and A−
is pure S wave, l = 0. The two amplitudes are equal for A0 , giving
maximum parity violation in the decay Σ+ → pπ 0 .
Problem 1.11. This is a numerical problem. Take Equation (1.26)
for the K̄0 content of a beam that starts out pure K0 . Measure time
in the K0 rest frame in units of the Ks lifetime τs = 0.89510−10 s.
Show that the mass difference term Δmt/τs = 0.47t/τs , and for
t/τs = 0 to 10, t/τL ≈ 0, so that we may write:
|K̄0 |K0 |2 = (e−t + 1 − 2 cos(0.47t)e−t/2 )/4; t in units of τs .
(1.5)
Plot this function for t/s = 0 to 10. It flattens out at 1/4 for large
times. Why?
 Chapter 1 13

Solution 1.11. The equation of interest is Equation (1.38), not

(1.26). It reads:
  
| K̄0 K0 |2 = (e−t/τs + e−t/τL − 2 cos(Δmt)e−(1/2τs +1/2τL )t )/4.
From the Particle Data Group:
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τs = 0.895 × 10−10 sec; τL = 5.11 × 10−8 sec;

Δm = mL − ms = 0.529 × 1010  sec−1 .
So Δmτs = 0.473 as stated in the problem, and τL /τs = 550, so at
t = 10τs it is safe to set t/τL = 0. This gives Equation (1.5), where
time is measured in units of τs . This function is plotted in Figure 1.
The same curve, with the x-axis in distance instead of proper time,
is shown in Figure 9.9 in the text. The probability reaches 1/4 for
long times because we have ignored the KL decay, so the beam is
pure KL , and we began with pure K 0 , which is 50% KL , and KL is
50% K̄ 0 .

0 0
Probability for K to K
Prob(K to K)

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
t/ τ_s in K rest frame

Figure 1: Probability that K 0 → K̄ 0 as a function of proper time in units of

τs = 0.895 × 10−10 sec.
 14 Introduction to High Energy Physics: Problems and Solutions

Colliding Beams
p
3

p p
1 2
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p
Fixed Target 4

p
3

p
1
m2
p
4

Figure 1.11: Kinematic diagrams for colliding beams and fixed target. In a single
ring particle–antiparticle collider the total momentum is zero, and the energy
√
available is twice the ring energy: s = 2E. For a fixed target arrangement
p2 = 0, and s = m21 + m22 + 2m2 E1 . The two final state momenta share a plane
with the incident beam direction.

Problem 1.12. Kinematics. Relativity is covered in Chapter 2, but

we have already seen some relativistic formulas: s, t, and u. These
quantities are invariants, meaning that they are the same in any rest
frame. Figure 1.11 shows two typical experimental configurations for
studying 2 → 2 reactions. Colliding beams are above, and fixed tar-
get is below. In a single ring collider, with counter rotating particle
and antiparticle beams, the two energies must be equal, E1 = E2 ,
and the total momentum must be zero, p2 = −p1 , so s = 4E 2 . Now
calculate s for the fixed target arrangement, where E2 = m2 , and
p2 = 0. Show that in the high energy limit, where all masses can be
√
ignored, s = 2E1 m2 . The energy available in the collision is s, and
√ √ √
s = 2E for a collider, while s = 2E1 m2 for fixed target. That
is one reason why colliders are so popular.
Calculate the momentum transfer t = (p1 − p3 )2 . Show that
if the masses are neglected, t = −4E 2 sin2 θ/2. Hence 1/t2 =
1/(16E 4 sin4 θ/2), which is the angle dependence of Rutherford
scattering.
Solution 1.12. Collider with equal and opposite momenta; s =
(p1 +p2 )2 = (E1 +E2 )2 = 4E 2 , where E is the energy of the ring, and
 Chapter 1 15

for a fixed target configuration s = (p1 + p2 )2 = (E1 + m2 )2 − |p1 |2 =

m21 + m22 + 2E1 m2 . The four momentum transfer t = (p1 − p3 )2 =
m21 + m23 − 2p1 · p3 ) = m21 + m23 − 2E1 E3 + 2p1 · p3 . In the high
energy limit in the center of mass the energies are equal, so t =
−2E 2 (1 − cos θ) = −4E 2 sin2 θ/2.
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Problem 1.13. Show that s + t + u = m21 + m22 + m23 + m24 .

Solution 1.13. s + t + u = (p1 + p2 )2 + (p1 − p3 )2 + (p1 − p4 )2 with
p1 + p2 = p3 + p4 , and p21 = m21 etc.
s + t + u = m21 + m22 + m23 + m24 + 2m21 + 2p1 · p2 − 2p1 · (p3 + p4 )
= m21 + m22 + m23 + m24 ;
because 2m21 + 2p1 · p2 − 2p1 · (p1 + p2 ) = 0.
Problem 1.14. Use the formula for s for fixed target to calculate
the threshold energy for incident pions in π − + p → Λ + K 0 . The
threshold is defined as the kinetic energy that must be supplied to
make a reaction proceed. At threshold s = (m3 + m4 )2 . m3 + m4 is
the minimum energy in the center of mass, but remember that s is
an invariant, and can be calculated in any frame.
Solution 1.14. s = m2π + m2p + 2mp Eπ = (mΛ + mK )2 . Numbers:
mπ = 140 MeV; mp = 938 MeV; mK = 498 MeV; mΛ = 1115 MeV.
(mΛ + mK )2 − m2π − m2p
Eπ = = 907 MeV.
2mp