MODULE III

FLIUD DYNAMICS
3.1 Introduction

Movement of fluid from one unit operation to the other is a common phenomenon in
the process industries. This movement may be over a long distance where substantial drop in
pressure in both the pipeline and in individual units occurs as a result of interaction of
different types of forces characterising the motion. It is necessary, therefore, to consider the
problems associated with designing the most suitable flow system; estimating the most
economical sizes of pipes; measuring the rate of flow, and frequently with controlling this
flow at steady state. When a fluid is flowing over a surface or through a pipe, the velocity at
various points in a plane at right angles to the stream velocity is rarely uniform, and the rate
of change of velocity with distance from the surface will exert a vital influence on the
resistance to flow and the rate of mass or heat transfer.
A scientist called Reynolds in 1883 observed that when a fluid flows through a tube
or over a surface, the pattern of flow varies with the velocity, the physical properties of fluid,
and the geometry of the surface. When the velocity of the fluid is slow, the flow pattern is
smooth ( laminar flow) and when it is high, an unstable pattern is observed in which eddies
or small packets of fluid particles are present moving in all directions and at all angles to the
normal line of flow (turbulent flow). He put forward a dimensionless number called
Reynolds Number (Re) which combines the average fluid velocity (u), density (), dynamic
viscosity (µ) and tube diameter (d) to characterise different types of flow. The Reynolds
Number is as defined in equation (3.1)
ud
Re  3.1

Also, given a volumetric flow rate Q(m3/s), mass flow rate m
 (kg/s), mass flux or mass
velocity G (kg/m2.s) and cross sectional area A, then:
Q Q
u  3.2
A ( / 4) d 2

4Q 4m Gd
Then, Re    3.3
d d 
For a straight circular tube, when the value of Re < 2000, the flow is said to be laminar, Re >
4000 means turbulent flow and values in between means transition region.
Example 3.1
Water at 303 K is flowing at the rate of 10 gal/min in a pipe having an inside diameter I.D. of
2.067 in. Calculate the Reynolds number using both English and S.I. units
3.2 Continuity Equation
The general principle of the conservation of mass in a system can be stated as shown in
equation (3.4).
INPUT = OUTPUT + GENERATION + ACCUMULATION
3.4
However, in an event where the system is not reactive and operates at a steady state, the third
and fourth terms are zero and thus results to equation (3.5)
INPUT = OUTPUT 3.5

Consider a simple flow system is shown in

Figure 3.1 where fluid enters section 1 with an
average velocity (u1) and density (ρ1) through a
cross-sectional area (A1). The fluid leaves
Figure 3.1 : Flow System
section 2 with an average velocity (u2) and
density (ρ2) through the cross-sectional area
(A2)
Thus at steady state:
m 1  m 2
Q1  1  Q2  2
u1 A1  1  u1 A2  2

For incompressible fluids at the same temperature, 1= 2 and therefore

u1 A1  u1 A2 3.6
Example 3.2
A petroleum crude oil having a density of 892 kg/m3 is flowing, through the piping
arrangement shown in the Figure below, at total rate of 1.388 x 10-3 m/s entering pipe 1
through to pipe 2. The flow
divides equally in each of pipes 3. The
steel pipes are schedule 40 pipe. (See
Table 3.1). Calculate the following using
SI units:
a) The total mass flow rate in pipe 1 and
pipes 3 .
b) The average velocity in pipe 1 and
pipes 3 .
c) The mass velocity in pipe 1.
Solution
From Table 3.1 for schedule 40
pipe:
2" pipe has ID = 2.067"
3" has ID =3.068"
11/2" has ID = 1.610"
(Conversion 12" = 30.48 cm)

3.3 Energy Relationships and Bernoulli’s Equation

The total energy of a fluid in motion consists of the following components: -
(i) Internal Energy (U) : This is the energy associated with the physical state of fluid,
i.e. the energy of atoms and molecules resulting from their motion and configuration.
Internal energy is a function of temperature. It can be written as (U) energy per unit
mass of fluid.
(ii) Potential Energy (PE): This is the energy that a fluid has because of its position in
the earth’s field of gravity. The work required to raise a unit mass of fluid to a height (z)
 above a datum line is (zg), where (g) is gravitational acceleration. This work is equal to
the potential energy per unit mass of fluid above the datum line.

Table 3.2 : Dimensions, Capacities and Weights of Standard Steel Pipes

Source : (McCabe et al ,1993 - Appendix 5)

 (iii) Kinetic Energy (KE): This is the energy associated with the physical state of fluid
motion. The kinetic energy of unit mass of the fluid is (u2/2), where (u) is the linear
velocity of the fluid relative to some fixed body.
(iv) Pressure Energy (Prss.E) : This is the energy or work required to introduce the
fluid into the system without a change in volume. If (P) is the pressure and (V) is the
volume of a mass (m) of fluid, then (PV/m = Pυ) is the pressure energy per unit mass of
fluid. The ratio (V/m) is the fluid density (1/ρ).

Therefore, the total energy per unit mass is given by equation (3.7)
Pu2
E  U  zg   3.7
 2

The principle of the conservation of energy can be applied to a process of input and output
streams for ideal fluid of constant density and without any pump present and no change in
temperature.
E1 = E2 3.8
2 2
uP1 P u
U 1  z1 g   1  U 2  z2 g  2  2
 2  2
U1 =U2 (no change in temperature)
2 2
P1
u P u
Then, z1 g   1  z2 g  2  2
 2  2

P u2
  zg = constant and therefore
 2

P u 2
  zg  0 (Bernoulli's Equation ) 3.9
 2
3.4 Equation of Motion

In the fluid flow, the following forces are present:

1. Fg : force due to gravity
2. FP : force due to pressure
3. FV : force due to viscosity
4. Ft : force due to turbulence
5. Fc : force due to compressibility Figure 3.2: Equations of motion
6. F: force due to surface tension
The net force is could be given by equation 3.10 in x- direction
Fx = (Fg)x +( FP)x +( FV)x + (Ft)x + (Fc)x + (F)x 3.10
But for most problems in fluid motion, (Fc) force due to compressibility and (F) force due to
surface tension are neglected and so equation (3.10) becomes equation (3.11) called
Reynolds equation of motion which is useful in the analysis of turbulent flow.
Fx = (Fg)x +( FP)x +( FV)x + (Ft)x 3.11
In laminar (viscous) flow, the turbulent force becomes insignificant and hence the equation
(3.11) may be written as (3.12) called Naiver - Stoke equation of motion useful for analysis
of viscous flow:
Fx = (Fg)x +( FP)x +( FV)x 3.12
If the flowing fluid is ideal and has very small viscosity, the viscous force and viscosity being
almost insignificant and the equation (3.12) becomes (3.13) called Euler's equation of motion
:
Fx = (Fg)x +( FP)x 3.13
The pictorial representation of the equations is as given in Figure 3.2

3.4.1 Euler's Equation of Motion

Consider a steady flow of an ideal fluid along a streamline as shown in Figure 3.1. Now
consider a small element of the flowing fluid:
Let: dA: cross-sectional area of the fluid element,
dL: Length of the fluid element
dW: Weight of the fluid element
u: Velocity of the fluid element
P: Pressure of the fluid element
The Euler’s equation of motion assumptions are:
(i) The fluid is non-viscous (the frictional losses are
zero).
(ii)The fluid is homogenous and Incompressible (the
density of fluid is constant).
(iii) The flow is continuous, steady, and along the
streamline (laminar).
(iv) The velocity of flow is uniform over the section. Figure 3.1
(v) No energy or force except gravity and pressure
forces
is involved in the flow.
The forces on the cylindrical elements are :)
(i) Pressure force acting on the direction of flow ( PdA)
(ii) Pressure force acting on the opposite direction of flow [(P+dP)dA]
(iii) Component of gravity force acting on the opposite direction of flow (dWsin )
- The Pressure force in the direction of flow : Fp = PdA - (P+dP)dA = -dPdA
- The gravity force in the direction of flow : Fg = -dWsin  ( W= mg = dAdLg)
= -gdAdLsin (sin = dz/dL)
Fg = - gdAdz
- The net force in the direction of flow : F = ma
  du du dL du 
= dAdLa a   x u 
 dt dL dt dL 
= dAudu
Then ,
Fx = (Fg)x +( FP)x
dAudu  dPdA  gdAdz
Divide through by dA and rearranging gives
dP
 udu  dzg  0 (Euler's Equation of motion ) 3.14

Bernoulli’s equation could be obtain by integration the Euler’s equation

  
dP
 udu  dzg  0

2
P u
  zg  cons tan t
 2
P u 2
  zg  0 (Bernoulli's Equation )
 2
3.4.2 Modifications to Bernoulli's Equation
(i) Correction of the Kinetic Energy Term
The velocity in kinetic energy term is the mean linear velocity in the pipe. To account the
effect of the velocity distribution across the pipe [() dimensionless correction factor] is
used.
For a circular cross sectional pipe:
-  = 0.5 for laminar flow
-  = 1.0 for turbulent flow
(ii) Modification for real fluid
The real fluids are viscous and hence offer resistance to flow. Friction appears wherever the
fluid flow is surrounded by solid boundary. Friction can be defined as the amount of
mechanical energy irreversibly converted into heat in a flow in stream. As a result of this, the
total energy is always decrease in the flow direction i.e. (E2 < E1). Therefore E1 = E + F,
where F is the energy losses due to friction.
Thus the Bernoulli's Equation becomes :
2 2
P1 u1 P u
  z1 g  2  2  z 2 g  F ( J / kg  m 2 / s 2 )
 2  2
3.15

(iii) Pump work in Bernoulli’s equation

A pump is used in a flow system to increase the
mechanical energy of the fluid. The increase being used to
maintain flow of the fluid. Assume a pump is installed
between the stations 1 and 2 as shown in Figure. The
work supplied to the pump is shaft work (– W), the
negative sign is due to work added to fluid.
Frictions occurring within the pump are: (i) Friction by fluid (ii) Mechanical friction
Since the shaft work must be discounted by these frictional force (losses) to give net
mechanical energy as actually delivered to the fluid by pump (Wp).
Thus, Wp = η Ws where η, is the efficiency of the pump.
Thus the modified Bernoulli’s equation for the presence of pump between the two selected
points 1 and 2 becomes
2 2
P1 u1 P2 u 2
  z1 g  Ws    z2 g  F ( J / kg  m 2 / s 2 )
 2 1  2 2
3.16

By dividing each term of this equation by (g), each term will have a length units, and the
equation will be:
P1 u
2
Ws P u
2

 1  z1   2  2  z 2  hF (m)
g 2 1 g g g 2 2 g
3.17
where hF = F/g ( head loss due to friction)
3.5 Friction in Pipes

When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some resistance due to which
some of energy of fluid is lost. This loss of energy may be :
(i) Major energy losses (Skin friction): due to surface skin of the pipe
(ii) Minor energy losses (Form friction) : (a) Sudden expansion or contraction pipe (b)
Bends, valves and fittings (c) An obstruction in pipe

3.5.1 Relation between Skin Friction and Wall Shear Stress

For the flow of a fluid in short pipe of length (dL), of diameter (d), the total frictional force
at the wall is the product of shear stress (rx) and the surface area of the pipe ( d dL). This
frictional force causes a drop in pressure (– dPfs). Consider a horizontal pipe as shown in
Figure.
 Force balance on element (dL)
 d 2 
 (ddL)  [ P  ( P  dPfs )] 
 4 
 dPfs  4(dL / d )  4( / u x )(dL / d ) u x
2 2
3.18
where  / u x =  = Jf = f/2 = f  / 8
2

For incompressible fluid flowing in a pipe of constant cross-sectional area, (u) is not a
function of pressure or length and equation (3.18) can be integrated over a length (L) to give
the equation of pressure drop due to skin friction:
 Pfs  4 f ( L / d )(u 2 / 2) ( Pa) 3.19
The energy loss per unit mass Fs is then given by
Fs  Pfs /   4 f ( L / d )(u 2 / 2) ( J / kg orm2 / s 2 ) 3.20
The head loss due to skin friction (hFs) is given by
hFs  Fs / g  (Pfs / g )  4 f ( L / d )(u 2 / 2 g ) (m) 3.21
Equations (3.19) - (3.21) can be used for laminar and turbulent flow

3.5.2 Evaluation of Friction Factor in Straight Pipes

- velocity distribution (profile)in laminar flow

NOTE: Using Moody friction factor ( f  )
 (32Lu ) / d 2  4( f  / 8)(L / d )(u 2 )  f   64 /(ud

 f   64 / Re - Moody friction factor

Example 3.3
Water flowing through a pipe of 20
cm I.D. at section 1 and 10 cm at
section 2 . The discharge through the
pipe is 35 lit/s. The section 1 is 6 m
above the datum line and section 2 is
2 m above it. If the pressure at
section is 245 kPa, find the intensity
of pressure at section 2 . Given that ρ
= 1000 kg/m3 , µ= 1.0 mPa.s.
Solution

Example 3.4 : If the pipe is smooth and its length is 20 m, find P2

Solution
Re2 = 445,600
Check the curve for smooth pipe on Figure 3.7 and determine f which is equal to 0.0034

 L  u
2
Recall that : Pfs  P1  P2  4 f  
d  2

 L  u
2
P2  P1  4 f  
d  2

 20  1000x4.456
2
P2  245000  4(0.0034)   246350.204 Pa  246.35kPa
 2 2

Example 3.5
A conical tube of 4 m length is fixed at an inclined angle of 30° with the horizontal line and
its small diameter upwards. The velocity at smaller end is (u1 = 5 m/s), while (u2 = 2 m/s) at
other end. The head losses in the tub is [0.35 (u1-u2)2/2g]. Determine the pressure head at
lower end if the flow takes place in downward direction and the pressure head at smaller end
is 2 m of liquid.
Example 3.6
Water with density ρ = 998 kg/m3, is flowing at steady mass flow rate through a uniform-
diameter pipe. The entrance pressure of the fluid is 68.9 kPa in the pipe, which connects to a
pump, which actually supplies 155.4 J/kg of fluid flowing in the pipe. The exit pipe from the
pump is the same diameter as the inlet pipe. The exit section of the pipe is 3.05 m higher than
the entrance, and the exit pressure is 137.8 kPa. The Reynolds number in the pipe is above
4,000 in this system. Calculate the frictional loss (F) in the pipe system.

3.5.3 Form Friction

Skin friction loss in straight pipe flow is calculated by using the Fanning friction factor (f).
However, if the velocity of the fluid is changed in direction or magnitude, additional friction
losses occur. This results from additional turbulence, which develops because of vertices and
other factors.
The change in pressure -Pf is therefore given by:

Example 3.7
Water flows at 7.2 m3/h through a sudden enlargement from a 40 mm to a 50 mm diameter
pipe. What is the loss in head?

2. Sudden Contraction Losses

As shown in Figure , the effective area for
flow gradually decreases as a sudden
contraction is approached and then
continues to decrease, for a short distance,
to what is known as the vena contracta.
After the vena contracta the flow area
gradually approaches that of the smaller
pipe. As the fluid moves towards the vena
contracta it is accelerated and pressure
energy is converted into kinetic energy; this
process does not give rise to eddy
formation and losses are very small. Beyond the vena contracta, however, the velocity falls as
the flow area increases and conditions are equivalent to those for a sudden enlargement. The
expression for the loss at a sudden enlargement can therefore be applied for the fluid flowing
from the vena contracta to some section a small distance downstream, where the whole of the
cross-section of the pipe is available for flow.
The frictional loss per unit mass of fluid is then given by:

Denoting the ratio of the area at section C to that at section 2 by a coefficient of contraction
Cc:

2
 1 
Kc    1
 Cc 

It may be noted that the maximum possible frictional loss which can occur at a change in
cross-section is equal to the entire kinetic energy of the fluid.
Example 3.8
A pipe of diameter 225mm is attached to a 150 mm pipe by means of a flange in such a
manner that the axes of the two pipes are in a straight line. water flows through the
arrangement at the rate of 0.05 m3/s. The pressure loss at the transition as indicated by
differential gauge length on a water -mercury manometer connected between the two pipes
equals 35mm. Calculate : (i) the loss of head due to contraction, and (ii) the coefficient of
contraction.
Solution
Diameter of large pipe , d1 = 225mm =
0.225m
Area ,

A1  x0.2252  0.03976m 2
4
Diameter of small pipe , d1 = 150mm =
0.150m
Area ,

A1  x0.1502  0.01767m 2
4
Discharge, Q = 0.05 m3/s
Reading of the differential gauge, h =35mm
= 0,035m

(i) Loss of head due to contraction hc:

When the water- mercury manometer is connected across the contracted transition, then
P1  P2 S 
 h m  1
g  Sw 
where Sm = specific gravity of mercury = 13.6, Sw = specific gravity of water = 1
P1  P2 S   13.6 
 h m  1  0.035  1  0.441m
g  Sw   1 
Let u1 and u2 be velocities of flow in the large and small diameter pipes, respectively. Then:
Q 0.05
u1    1.26m / s
A1 0.03976
Q 0.05
u2    2.83m / s
A2 0.01767
Then applying the Bernoulli's Equation with frictional loss:
( P1  P2 ) (u1  u 2 )
2 2

  ( z1  z 2 )  hc
g 2g
Note the hc = head loss due to contraction and z1= z2 (horizontal pipe)
(1.26 2  2.832 )
hc  0.441   0.114m of water
2 x9.81
(ii) The coefficient of contraction Cc
2
u
2
 1 
hc  2   1
2g  Cc 
2
2.832  1 
0.114    1  C c  0.65
2 x9.81  C c 

3- Losses in Fittings and Valves

Pipe fittings and valves also disturb the normal flow lines in a pipe and cause additional
friction losses. In a short pipe with many fittings, the friction losses from these fittings could
be greater than in the straight pipe. Some representative figures are given in Table 3.3 for the
friction losses in various pipe fittings for turbulent flow of fluid, and are expressed in terms
of the equivalent length of straight pipe with the same resistance, and as the number of
velocity heads (u2/2g) lost. Considerable variation occurs according to the exact construction
of the fittings. Typical pipe-fittings are shown in Figures below.
Table 3.3. Friction losses in pipe fittings
 Evaluation of the friction loss in valves and fittings involves the determination of the
appropriate loss coefficient (Kf), which in turn defines the energy loss per unit mass of fluid:
2
u1
Ff  K f
2
The basis for the equivalent L/D method is the assumption that there is some length of pipe
(Leq) that has the same friction loss as that which occurs in the fitting, at a given (pipe)
Reynolds number. Thus, the fittings are conceptually replaced by the equivalent additional
length of pipe that has the same friction loss as the fitting:


2
u1 L
Ff  4 f  
2  d  eq
3.5.4 Total Friction Losses
The frictional losses from the friction in the straight pipe (skin friction), enlargement
losses, contraction losses, and losses in fittings and valves are all incorporated in F term in
mechanical energy balance equation (modified Bernoulli’s equation), so that,

If all the velocity u,u1 and u2 are the same, then this equation becomes, for this special case;

If equivalent length of the straight pipe for the losses in fittings and/or valves, then this
equation becomes:
Example 3.9
2.27 m3/h water at 320 K is pumped in a 40 mm i.d. pipe through a distance of 150 m in a
horizontal
direction and then up through a vertical height of 10m. In the pipe there is a control valve for
which the
friction loss may be taken as equivalent to 200 pipe diameters and also other pipe fittings
equivalent to 60 pipe diameters. Also in the line is a heat exchanger across which there is a
loss in head of 1.5 m of water. If the main pipe has a roughness of 0.2 mm, what power must
be supplied to the pump if it is 60 per cent efficient?
Solution