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Notes
Metabolism
Metabolism - is the sum total of all the biochemical
reactions that take place in a living organism. Human
metabolism is quite remarkable. An average human adult
whose weight remains the same for 40 years processes about
6 tons of solid food and 10,000 gallons of water, during
which time the composition of the body is essentially
constant.
Catabolism -is all metabolic reactions in which large

biochemical molecules are broken down to smaller ones.
The reactions involved in the oxidation of glucose are

catabolic.
Anabolism - is all metabolic reactions in which small

biochemical molecules are joined together to form larger
ones. Anabolic reactions usually require energy in order
to proceed.
Notes
Metabolism
The metabolic reactions that occur in a cell are usually
organized into sequences called metabolic pathways.
.A metabolic pathway - is a series of consecutive biochemical

reactions used to convert a starting material into an end
product. Such pathways may be linear, in which a series of
reactions generates a final product, or cyclic, in which a
series of reactions regenerates the first reactant
The major metabolic pathways for all life forms are similar.
This enables scientists to study metabolic reactions in
simpler life forms and use the results to help understand the
corresponding metabolic reactions in more complex
organisms, including human
Notes
Metabolism Metabolism and Cell Structure
.Knowledge of the major structural features of a cell is a

prerequisite to under standing where metabolic reactions
take place. Cells are of two types: prokaryotic and
eukaryotic.
Prokaryotic cells - have no nucleus and are found only in

bacteria. The DNA that governs the reproduction of
prokaryotic cells is usually a single circular molecule found
near the center of the cell in a region called the nucleoid.
A eukaryotic cell - is a cell in which the DNA is found in a

membrane-enclosed nucleus. Cells of this type, which are
found in all higher organisms, are about 1000 times larger
than bacterial cells. The remainder of this section focuses on
eukaryotic cells, the type present in humans.
The general internal structure of a eukaryotic cell: the outer

membrane, nucleus, cytosol, ribosomes, lysosomes, and the
mitochondria.
Notes
Metabolism
The cytoplasm - is the water-based material of a eukaryotic
cell that lies between the nucleus and the outer membrane of
the cell. Within the cytoplasm are several kinds of small
structures called organelles.
An organelle - is a minute structure within the cytoplasm of

a cell that carries out a specific cellular function. The
organelles are surrounded by the cytosol.
The cytosol - is the water-based fluid part of the cytoplasm

of a cell
Three important types of organelles are: ribosomes,

lysosomes, and mitochondria. Ribosomes - they are the sites
where protein synthesis occurs.
A lysosome - is an organelle that contains hydrolytic

enzymes needed for cellular rebuilding, repair, and
degradation. Some lysosome enzymes hydrolyze proteins to
amino acids; others hydrolyze polysaccharides to
monosaccharides. Bacteria and viruses “trapped” by the
body’s immune system are degraded and destroyed by
enzymes from lysosomes.
Notes
Metabolism
A mitochondrion - is an organelle that is responsible for the
generation of most of the energy for a cell. Much of the
discussion of this chapter deals with the energy producing
chemical reactions that occur within mitochondria.
Mitochondria are sausage-shaped organelles containing
both an outer membrane and a multifolded inner
membrane.
The outer membrane, which is about 50% lipid and 50%

protein, is freely permeable to small molecules. The inner
membrane, which is about 20% lipid and 80% protein, is
highly impermeable to most substances.
The nonpermeable nature of the inner membrane divides a

mitochondrion into two separate compartments—an
interior region called the matrix and the region between the
inner and outer membranes, called the intermembrane
space. The folds of the inner membrane that protrude into
the matrix are called cristae.
Notes
Metabolism
The invention of high-resolution electron microscopes
allowed researchers to see the interior structure of the
mitochondrion more clearly and led to the discovery, in
1962, of small spherical knobs attached to the cristae
called ATP synthase complexes
Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in

Metabolic Pathways
Adenosine Phosphates (ATP, ADP, and AMP)
Several adenosine phosphates exist. Of importance in

metabolism are adenosine monophosphate (AMP),
adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). AMP is one of the nucleotides
present in RNA molecules. ADP and ATP differ
structurally from AMP only in the number of
phosphate groups present. Block structural diagrams
for these three adenosine phosphates follow
.
Notes
Metabolism
The phosphate-ribose bond is a phosphoester bond, and
the phosphate-phosphate bonds are phosphoanhydride
bonds. The word anhydride present in the term
phosphoanhydride refers to the production of (loss of) a
molecule of water when two phosphate groups bond to
each other.
A phosphoanhydride bond is the chemical bond formed

when two phosphate groups react with each other and a
water molecule is produced.
Notes
Metabolism
Notes
Metabolism
ATP and ADP molecules readily undergo hydrolysis
reactions in which phosphate groups (Pi , inorganic
phosphate) are released
The preceding hydrolysis reactions are energy-producing

reactions that are used to drive cellular processes that
require energy input. The phosphoanhydride bonds in
ATP and ADP are very reactive bonds that require less
energy than normal to break. The presence of such reactive
bonds, which are often called strained bonds, is the basis
for the net energy production that accompanies hydrolysis.
Greater-than-normal electron–electron repulsive forces at
specific locations within a molecule are the cause for bond
strain; in ATP and ADP, it is the highly electronegative
oxygen atoms in the additional phosphate groups that
cause the increased repulsive strain.
Notes
Metabolism
A typical cellular reaction in which ATP functions as both
a source of a phosphate group and a source of energy is
the conversion of glucose to glucose-6- phosphate, a
reaction that is the fi rst step in the process of glycolysis
ATP is not the only nucleotide triphosphate present in

cells, although it is the most prevalent. The other nitrogen-
containing bases associated with nucleotides are also
present in triphosphate form. Uridine triphosphate (UTP)
is involved in carbohydrate metabolism, guanosine
triphosphate (GTP) participates in protein and
carbohydrate metabolism, and cytidine triphosphate
(CTP) is involved in lipid metabolism.
Notes
Metabolism
Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD, FADH2)
.Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) - is a coenzyme required

in numerous metabolic redox reactions. Structurally, FAD
can be visualized as containing either three subunits or six
subunits. A block diagram of FAD from the three subunit
viewpoint is.
.The flavin and ribitol subunits in this structure together

constitute the B vitamin riboflavin . The coenzyme FAD is
thus one of the biochemically active forms of riboflavin; the
activating factor is the ADP subunit. The block diagram for
FAD from the six-subunit viewpoint is
Notes
Metabolism
This block diagram shows the basis for the name flavin
adenine dinucleotide.
Ribitol - is a reduced form of ribose; a 9CH2OH group is

present in place of the 9CHO group
In examining what happens to coenzymes such as FAD

when they participate in redox reactions, the definitions for
oxidation and reduction used are those that relate to
hydrogen atom change. These definitions, first given in
Section 14.9, are:
1. Oxidation involves hydrogen atom loss.
2. Reduction involves hydrogen atom gain
Also, in order to better keep track of changes that occur

within a coenzyme as a result of oxidation or reduction, it is
convenient to consider hydrogen atoms.

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Notes

Catabolism -is all metabolic reactions in which large

The reactions involved in the oxidation of glucose are

Anabolism - is all metabolic reactions in which small

.A metabolic pathway - is a series of consecutive biochemical

.Knowledge of the major structural features of a cell is a

Prokaryotic cells - have no nucleus and are found only in

A eukaryotic cell - is a cell in which the DNA is found in a

The general internal structure of a eukaryotic cell: the outer

An organelle - is a minute structure within the cytoplasm of

The cytosol - is the water-based fluid part of the cytoplasm

Three important types of organelles are: ribosomes,

A lysosome - is an organelle that contains hydrolytic

The outer membrane, which is about 50% lipid and 50%

The nonpermeable nature of the inner membrane divides a

Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in

Adenosine Phosphates (ATP, ADP, and AMP)

Several adenosine phosphates exist. Of importance in

A phosphoanhydride bond is the chemical bond formed

The preceding hydrolysis reactions are energy-producing

ATP is not the only nucleotide triphosphate present in

.Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) - is a coenzyme required

.The flavin and ribitol subunits in this structure together

Ribitol - is a reduced form of ribose; a 9CH2OH group is

In examining what happens to coenzymes such as FAD

Also, in order to better keep track of changes that occur

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