BASIC ELECTRICITY

AND ELECTRONICS

kiot Mceng 2262

 Chapter 1
Basic Electrical Theory
In this chapter we will discuss about
 Atom and Its Forces,

 Electrical Terminology,

 Units of Electrical Measurement,

 Methods of Producing Voltage,

 Electrical Symbols,

 Conductors,

 Insulators and Semiconductors

objectives

 After completing this chapter ,the students should be

able to :
 Define matter,element,and molecule.
 List the parts of the atom.
 Define the valance shell of an atom.
 Identify the units for measuring current
 Draw the symbol used to represent current flow in
the circuit
 Describe the difference between conductors and
insulators and semi conductor
cont’d
 Define the difference of potential electromotive
force and voltage
 Draw the symbol used to represent voltage.
 Identify the unit used to measure voltage.
 Define resistance.
 Identify the characteristics of resistance in a
circuit.
 Identify the units of measuring resistance.
 Draw the symbol used to represent resistance in a
circuit.
The structure of matter
 In the understanding of fundamentals of electricity,
the knowledge of the structure of matter plays an
important role.
 The Matter: which occupies space(may be
solid,liquid,or gaseous )
 It has weight .
Cont’d
 All forms of matters are composed of molecules
Cont’d
 Elements
 Basicbuilding block of nature.
 Cannot be reduced to a simpler substance by
chemical means.
The Atom

 Elements are the basic building blocks of all matter. The atom is
the smallest particle to which an element can be reduced while
still keeping the properties of that element.
 An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by
negatively charged electrons, so that the atom as a whole is
electrically neutral. The nucleus is composed of two kinds of
subatomic particles, protons and neutrons,
 The proton carries a single unit positive charge equal in
magnitude to the electron charge.
 The neutron is slightly heavier than the proton and is
electrically neutral, as the name implies. These two
particles exist in various combinations, depending
upon the element involved.
 The electron is the fundamental negative charge (-)
of electricity and revolves around the nucleus, or
center, of the atom in concentric orbits, or shells.
Structure of an Atom
 All of the protons and neutrons bound together in to a compact
nucleus.
 Parts of an atom

-nucleus
 located at the center of an atom
-proton
Positively charged particles in side the nucleus
-neutrons
 Uncharged particle in side nucleus
-Electrons
 Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus
 Cont’d
 In the normal atom the number of protons and electrons are equal.
This type of atom is termed as electrically neutral .
 The electrons are arranged in different orbits.
 The nucleus exerts the force of attraction on the revolving electron
and hold them together
 All these different orbits are called shells and posses s a certain
energy
 These are called energy shell or quanta
Cont’d
Key point:
 The electron or the electrons revolving in the farthest orbit are
loosely held to the nucleus.
 Such a shell is called the valance shell. And such electron are
called valance electron
 In some atoms such valance electrons are loosely bound to the
nucleus at room temperature when additional energy is
imparted to the valance electrons cause them to escape from
the shell and exists as free electrons.
 Such free electrons are basically responsible for the flow of
electric current through metals.
Cont’d
# Note :
 More the number of free electrons ,better is the metal for the
conduction of current.
 For example, copper has free electrons
per cubic meter and hence it is good conductor of
electricity
 Cont’d

 This is the process tha how electricity is processed in a

given circuit.
 Atoms and its force
#Electro static force:
 In an atom , the electron and the nucleus attract each other. This attraction is called
electrostatic force, the force that holds the electron in orbit.

figure : electrostatic force

Cont’d
 Without this electrostatic force, the electron, which is
traveling at high speed, could not stay in its orbit. Bodies that
attract each other in this way are called charged bodies.

# The First Law of Electrostatics

 The negative charge of the electron is equal, but opposite to,
the positive charge of the proton. These charges are referred to
as electrostatic charges.
Cont’d

 In nature, unlike charges (like electrons and protons) attract each

other, and like charges repel each other. These facts are known as
the First Law of Electrostatics and are sometimes referred to as the
law of electrical charges.
 This law should be remembered because it is one of the vital
concepts in electricity.
 Some atoms can lose electrons and others can gain electrons; thus,
it is possible to transfer electrons from one object to another.
 Cont’d
 These objects, which can contain billions of atoms, will then
follow the same law of electrostatics as the electron and proton.
 The electrons that can move around within an object are said to
be free electrons.
 The greater the number of these free electrons an object
contains, the greater its negative electric charge.
 Thus, the electric charge can be used as a measure of electrons.
What is electricity?

 We will discuss here the basic introduction of electricity.

 Each substance in this universe is made of plenty of atoms and each
atom has the same number of negative electrons and positive
protons.
 As a result, we can say that each neutral substance has the same
number of electrons and protons in it.
 The protons are immovable and strongly attached to the nucleus of
the atoms. Electrons are also bounded to atoms and orbiting around
the nucleus in different distinct levels.
 But some of the electrons can move freely or can come out from
their orbit due to external influences.
 These free and as well as loosely bonded electrons cause electricity.
cont’d

 Electricity is defined as "the flow of electrons through simple

materials and devices" or "that force which moves electrons."
Scientists think electricity is produced by very tiny particles
called electrons and protons.
 These particles are too small to be seen, but exist as subatomic
particles in the atom.
 Methods of producing voltage
 To produce voltage we can use one of the following
methods .These are
 Electrochemistry
 Static (friction)
 Induction (magnetism)
 Piezoelectric (pressure)
 Thermal (heat)
 Light
 Thermionic emission
 1, Electro chemistry
 Chemicals can be combined with certain metals to cause a chemical reaction
that will transfer electrons to produce electrical energy. This process works on
the electrochemistry principle.
 One example of this principle is the voltaic chemical cell Chemicals can be
combined with certain metals to cause a chemical reaction that will transfer
electrons to produce electrical energy. This process works on the
electrochemistry principle. One example of this principle is the voltaic chemical
cell, shown in Figure .

Figure : voltaic chemical cell

 cont’d
 A chemical reaction produces and maintains opposite charges on
two dissimilar metals that serve as the positive and negative
terminals. The metals are in contact with an electrolyte solution.
 Connecting together more than one of these cells will produce a
battery.
 A chemical reaction produces and maintains opposite charges on
two dissimilar metals that serve as the positive and negative
terminals.
 The metals are in contact with an electrolyte solution. Connecting
together more than one of these cells will produce battery.
 A battery can maintain a potential difference between its positive
and negative terminals by chemical action
 2. Static electricity
 Atoms with the proper number of electrons in orbit around
them are in a neutral state, or have a "zero charge.“
 A body of matter consisting of these atoms will neither
attract nor repel other matter that is in its vicinity. If
electrons are removed from the atoms in this body of
matter, as happens due to friction when one rubs a glass
rod with a silk cloth, it will become electrically positive as
shown in Figure 12.

figure : static electricity

Cont’d
 If this body of matter (e.g., glass rod) comes near, but not in
contact with, another body having a normal charge, an electric
force is exerted between them because of their unequal
charges.
 The existence of this force is referred to as static electricity or
electrostatic force.
 Example :
 Have you ever walked across a carpet and received a shock when you
touched a metal door knob? Your shoe soles built up a charge by rubbing
on the carpet, and this charge was transferred to your body. Your body
became positively charged and, when you touched the zero-charged door
knob, electrons were transferred to your body until both you and the door
knob had equal charges.
 3.Magnetic induction
 A generator is a machine that converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy by using the principle of
magnetic induction.
 Magnetic induction is used to produce a voltage by
rotating coils of wire through a stationary magnetic
field, as shown in Figure, or by rotating a magnetic
field through stationary coils of wire.

Figure : generator –electro magnetic induction

Cont’d
 This is one of the most useful and widely employed
applications of producing vast quantities of electric power.
Magnetic induction will be studied in more detail in the next
two chapters "Magnetism," and "Magnetic Circuits."
 4. Piezo electric effect
 By applying pressure to certain crystals (such as quartz or Rochelle
salts) or certain ceramics (like barium titanate), electrons can be
driven out of orbit in the direction of the force.
 Electrons leave one side of the material and accumulate on the other
side, building up positive and negative charges on opposite sides, as
shown in Figure.

Figure : pressure applied to a certain crystals produces an

electric charge
 cont’d
 When the pressure is released, the electrons return to their orbits.
Some materials will react to bending pressure, while others will
respond to twisting pressure.
 This generation of voltage is known as the piezoelectric effect.
 If external wires are connected while pressure and voltage are
present, electrons will flow and current will be produced.
 If the pressure is held constant, the current will flow until the
potential difference is equalized.
 Cont’d
 When the force is removed, the material is decompressed and
immediately causes an electric force in the opposite direction.
 The power capacity of these materials is extremely small.
However, these materials are very useful because of their extreme
sensitivity to changes of mechanical force.
 Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

 The atomic structure of matter affects how easily

charges, i.e., electrons, move through a substance
and hence how it is used electrically.
 Electrically, materials are classified as
conductors, insulators, or semiconductors.
 Conductors


Materials through which charges move easily are termed

conductors.
 The most familiar examples are metals. Good metal conductors
have large numbers of free electrons that are able to move about
easily.
 In particular, silver, copper, gold, and aluminum are excellent
conductors. Of these, copper is the most widely used. Not only is
it an excellent conductor, it is inexpensive and easily formed into
wire, making it suitable for a broad spectrum of applications
ranging from common house wiring to sophisticated electronic
equipment.
 Aluminum, although it is only about 60% as good a conductor as
copper, is also used, mainly in applications where light weight is
important, such as in overhead power transmission lines. Silver
and gold are too expensive for general use.
 Cont’d
 However, gold, because it oxidizes less than other
materials, is used in specialized applications; for example,
some critical electrical connectors use it because it makes
a more reliable connection than other materials.
 Insulators
 Materials that do not conduct (e.g., glass, porcelain, plastic, rubber,
and so on) are termed insulators.
 The covering on electric lamp cords, for example, is an insulator. It is
used to prevent the wires from touching and to protect us from electric
shock.
 Insulators do not conduct because they have full or nearly full valence
shells and thus their electrons are tightly bound.
 However, when high enough voltage is applied, the force is so great
that electrons are literally torn from their parent atoms, causing the
insulation to break down and conduction to occur.
 In air, you see this as an arc or flashover. In solids, charred insulation
usually results.
semiconductors

 Silicon and germanium (plus a few other materials) have half-filled

valence shells and are thus neither good conductors nor good
insulators.
 They have unique electrical properties that make them
important to the electronics industry.
 The most important material is silicon.
 It is used to make transistors, diodes, integrated circuits, and other
electronic
devices. Semiconductors have made possible personal computers,
VCRs, portable CD players, calculators, and a host of other
electronic products.
 Fundamentals of electrical circuits

 Voltage provides the electrical pressure or force that enables the current or
electrons to flow.
 Voltage is the difference in electrical pressure between two points in a circuit .
 Voltage is measured in units called volts . The symbol for Voltage is E and the
symbol for volt is V
The concept of charge
 In all atoms, there exists number of which are very loosely
bound to its nucleus, such electrons are free to wonder about,
through the space under the influence of specific forces.
 When such electrons are removed from, it become positively
charged( i.e. losing negatively charged particles).
 When electrons are added to the atom it becomes negatively
charged.
# note : Thus total deficiency or addition of excess electrons
in an atom is called its charge and the element is said to be
charged.
Cont’d
 The following table shows the different particles and
charge possessed by them.

 Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles

of which matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).
Electric Charge (Q)
 Characteristic of subatomic particles that determines their
electromagnetic interactions
 The unit of the measurement of the charge is coulomb
 The charge on one electron is -1.602∙10-19 , so one coulomb
is defined as the charge possessed by the total number of
 number of electrons

 An electron has a -1.602∙10-19 Coulomb charge

 N.B : if an element has a positive charge of one coulomb ,
then that element has a deficiency of -6.24∙1018 number of
electrons.
Cont’d
Thus

# note:
 Thus, addition or removal of electrons causes the change in
the nature of the charge possessed by the element.
 The rate of flow of charged particles is called current
The concept of electromotive force and
current
 The movement of free electrons are responsible for
the flow of electric current.

Figure : The flow of current

 Cont’d
 When the small effort , externally applied to such a conductor
makes all such free electrons to drift along the metal in a definite
particular direction.
 The applied electrical effect may be cells, batteries connected

across the two ends of the conductor.

# Note : 1 An electrical effect required to drift the free electrons in
one particular direction, in a conductor is called Electro motive
force.
# Note : 2 The electric effect i.e. e.m.f. is maintained across the
positive and negative electrodes of the cell, due to the chemical
action in side the solution contained in the ell
 Cont’d
 This movement of electrons is called an Electric current.
 The movement of electrons is always from negative to positive
while the movement of current is always assumed as from positive
to negative . This is called conventional current.
 # Note : The direction of conventional current is form positive to
negative terminal while the direction of flow of electrons is always
from negative to positive terminal, through the external circuit
across which the e.m.f. is applied.
Current (I)
 Current = (Number of electrons that pass in one
second) ∙ (charge/electron)
 -1 ampere = (6.242∙1018 e/sec) ∙(-1.602 10-19Coulomb/e)
 Notice that an ampere = Coulomb/second

 The negative sign indicates that the current inside is

actually flowing in the opposite direction of the
electron flow Electrons

Current
Cont’d
Current
 So current can be defined as the rate of flow of charge in an
electric circuit or in any medium in which charges are
subjected to an external electric field.
 i = dq/dt – the derivitive or slope of the charge when plotted

against time in seconds

 Q = ∫ i ∙ dt – the integral or area under the current when
Current
plotted against time in seconds
amps
4
3
Q delivered in 0-5 sec= 12.5 Coulombs
2
1

5 sec
AC and DC Current
•DC Current has a constant value

•AC Current has a value that changes sinusoidally

Notice that AC current

changes in value and
direction

No net charge is

transferred
Why Does Current Flow?
 A voltage source provides the energy (or work)
required to produce a current
 Volts = joules/Coulomb = dW/dQ
 A source takes charged particles (usually electrons)
and raises their potential so they flow out of one
terminal into and through a transducer (light bulb or
motor) on their way back to the source’s other
terminal
Voltage
 Voltage is a measure of the potential energy that causes a
current to flow through a transducer in a circuit
 Voltage is always measured as a difference with respect to an
arbitrary common point called ground
 Voltage is also known as electromotive force or EMF
 # The ability of a charged particle to the work( i.e. when
charged particles are brought near, they try to repel each other
while dissimilar charges attract each other) is called its
electric potential.
 The unit of electric potential is volt
Cont’d
 Cont’d
 The electric potential at a point due to a charge is one volt if one
joule of work is done in bringing a unit positive charge i.e.
positive charge of one coulomb from infinity to that point.

# mathematically expressed as :

 The difference between the electric potentials at any two given

points in a circuit is known as potential difference(p.d.) . This is
also called voltage between the two points and measured in
VOLTS.
 The symbol for voltage is ‘V’.
Voltage-Current Relations
 Resistance, Inductance and
Capacitance
 All electrical devices that consume energy must have a resistor (also
called a resistance) in their circuit model.
 Inductors and capacitors may store energy but over time return that
energy to the source or to another circuit element.
 The circuit element that stores energy in a magnetic field is an inductor
(also called an inductance).
 With time-variable current, the energy is generally stored during some
parts of the cycle and then returned to the source during others.
 When the inductance is removed from the source, the magnetic field will
collapse; in other words, no energy is stored without a connected
source.
 Coils found in electric motors, transformers, and similar devices can be
expected to have inductances in their circuit models.
 Energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductance is wL=1/2Li2.
 Cont’d
 The circuit element that stores energy in an electric field is a
capacitor (also called capacitance). When the voltage is variable
over a cycle, energy will be stored during one part of the cycle
and returned in the next.
 While an inductance cannot retain energy after removal of the
source because the magnetic field collapses, the capacitor retains
the charge and the electric field can remain after the source is
removed. This charged condition can remain until a discharge
path is provided, at which time the energy is
 released. The charge, q=Cv, on a capacitor results in an electric
field in the dielectric which is the mechanism of the energy
storage.
 The energy stored in the electric field of capacitance is
WC=1/2Cv2.
Resistance

 Resistance :
- Opposes flow of current.
- Unit is ohms.
- Measured by ohm meter connected across it.
- Depends upon type of material, area & length.
- Produces heat when current flows through it.
- Fixed and variable resistor (potentiometer).
Cont’d
 RESISTANCE (OHMS).
Resistance is a restriction to current flow.
Increasing resistance will reduce flow of current.
Electrical resistance is measured in units called ohms,
they are abbreviated by the letter R, and the
symbol is Ω ( omega)
Cont’d
 Inductor -
- Coil of wire.
- Opposes change in current.
- Used to create magnetic field for rotation.
- Unit is henry.
- Open and short inductor.
Cont’d
 Capacitor -
- Two metal plates separated by a DI-electric (Max
volts/mm which a
medium can withstand without breakdown).
- Gets charged when voltage is applied.
- Unit of capacitance is farad.
- Capacitor in series 1/C=1/C1+1/C2 & in
parallel C= C1+C2.
-C=Q/V
- Practical unitsMicro and Pico farad.
The electrical circuit
 An electrical circuit can be compared to a simple
hydraulic circuit.
A Circuit
 Current flows from the higher voltage terminal of the source
into the higher voltage terminal of the transducer before
returning to the source
I

+ Transducer - The source expends

Voltage energy & the transducer
+ converts it into
Source
something useful
Voltage I

-
Cont’d
Circuit Element
 An element is the basic building block of a circuit. An electric
circuit is simply an interconnection of the elements. Circuit
analysis is the process of determining voltages across (or the
currents through) the elements of the circuit.
 There are two types of elements found in electric circuits:

passive elements and

Active elements.
Passive Devices
 A passive transducer device functions only when
energized by a source in a circuit
 Passive devices can be modeled by a resistance
 Passive devices always draw current so that the
highest voltage is present on the terminal where the
current enters the passive device

+ V>0 -  Notice that the voltage is

measured across the device
 Current is measured
I>0
through the device
Active Devices
 Sources expend energy and are considered active
devices
 Their current normally flows out of their highest
voltage terminal
 Sometimes, when there are multiple sources in a
circuit, one overpowers another, forcing the other to
behave in a passive manner
 Power
 Power is an indication of how much work (the conversion of
energy from one form to another) can be accomplished in a
specified amount of time, that is. a rate of doing work.
 For instance, a large motor has more power than a small motor
because it can convert more electrical energy into mechanical
energy in the same period of time.
 Since converted energy is measured in joules (J) and time in
seconds (s). power is measured in joules second (J s).
 The electrical unit of measurement for power is the watt (\V).
defined by
# In equation form, power is determined by ----
Power
 The rate at which energy is transferred from an
active source or used by a passive device
 P in watts = dW/dt = joules/second
 P= V∙I = dW/dQ ∙ dQ/dt = volts ∙ amps = watts
 W = ∫ P ∙ dt – so the energy (work in joules) is
equal to the area under the power in watts plotted
against time in seconds.
 Power is measured in watts and also non si units by
using horse power
Conservation of Power
 Power is conserved in a circuit - ∑ P = 0
 We associate a positive number for power as power
absorbed or used by a passive device
 A negative power is associated with an active
device delivering power

I If I=1 amp If I= -1 amp If I= -1 amp

+ V=5 volts V=5 volts V= -5 volts
V Then passive Then active Then passive
- P=+5 watts P= -5 watts P=+5 watts
(absorbed) (delivered) (absorbed)
Example
 A battery is 11 volts and as it is charged, it
increases to 12 volts, by a current that starts at 2
amps and slowly drops to 0 amps in 10 hours
(36000 seconds)
 The power is found by multiplying the current and
voltage together at each instant in time
 In this case, the battery (a source) is acting like a
passive device (absorbing energy)
 Energy
 In order for power, which is the rate of doing work, to produce an
energy conversion of any form, it must be used over a period of
time.
For example, a motor may have the horsepower to run a heavy
load, but unless the motor is used over a period of time, there will
be no energy conversion. In addition, the longer the motor is used
to drive the load, the greater will be the energy expended.
 The watt second. however, is too small a quantity for most
practical purposes, so the watr hour (Wh) and kilowatt hour
(kWh) were defined, as follows:
Energy
 The energy is the area under the power curve
 Area of triangle = .5 ∙ base ∙ height
 W=area= .5 ∙ 36000 sec. ∙ 22 watts = 396000 J.

 W=area= .5 ∙ 10 hr. ∙ .022 Kw. = 110 Kw.∙hr

 So 1 Kw.∙hr = 3600 J.
 Since 1 Kw.∙hr costs about $0.10, the battery costs
$11.00 to charge
Electrical terms and symbols
Cont’d
 B
Circuit load
 A load generally refers to a component or a piece of
equipment connected to the out put of an electric circuit .
 A load is represented by any one or the combination of the
following.
Sign convention
 In a given circuit, the current direction depends on the polarity
of the source voltage. Current always flow from positive( high
potential ) side to the negative ( low potential) side of the
source as shown in the following diagram.

 Vs is the source voltage

 Vl is the voltage a cross the load and I is the loop current
flowing in the clockwise direction.
Cont’d
 # Note :
 In Source : current leaves from the positive terminal
 In load : current enters from the positive termial
CHAPTER TWO

2.BASIC DC THEORY
Introduction