Research Methods for

Post-Graduate Students
Gateways to knowledge making and understanding
Lecture 1
Felix Maringe (Professor of Higher Education)
Core arguments
• Research is the most professional enhancing process at our
disposal. Everything else amounts to professional cloning
which changes precious little around us.
• Professionals share five critical qualities:
1. they behave in ways befitting of their professional status;
2. they continuously seek self improvement, through
additional qualifications, and CPD programmes;
3. they participate in knowledge making for their professions,
through conducting research, and consuming the
research of others;
4. they actively engage with relevant professional bodies;
5. they regularly publish the findings of their own research.
The questions I seek to address
today
• What is research (know at least two different definitions of
research, with references, and highlight key
characteristics of what counts as research)
• Why are professionals expected to conduct research
(provide at least 5 reasons and give examples)
• How is research conducted (identify, define, explain, and
exemplify at least five different types of research)
• Differentiate between at least three approaches to
conducting research in relation to the variables of
purposes, methods, types of knowledge produced and
validity
Hierarchies of knowledge

Benjamin S. Bloom’s hierarchy of knowledge

What do we learn from Bloom’s
taxonomy?
• That knowledge types require increasingly different
ways of processing
• The higher the knowledge levels, the more complex
become the learning processes
• At post graduate levels, learning and assessment ought
to deal with the more complex processes of
application, analysis, synthesis and creation
• As research primarily aims to produce new knowledge,
it is the best tool to use for the purposes of creating
new forms of knowledge.
•
What is research and why it is
important?
Research is a systematic inquiry that aims to
describe, explain, predict, and control observed phenomena1.
It involves creative and systematic work to increase knowledge by
collecting, organizing, and analyzingevidence2.
Research is an
investigation into a topic or idea to discover new information3.
1. What do the words systematic, and inquiry mean to you?
2. What four processes are highlighted as central to the research
endeavours?
3. What seems to be the end game of research?
4. Critically review this assertion: research is undemocratic and elitist?
Why is research so important?
• Adds to the fund of knowledge and understanding
• Provides evidence for how people’s lives can be
positively improved
• Creates evidence bases upon which new ideas and
inventions can be produced
• Creates a basis for reimaging new frontiers in the
development of a discipline
• Defines the limits and opportunities for growth and
development in society
• Can be used to understand the past, the present and
predict the future
Types of research
• Exploratory research ventures into uncharted territories, exploring new questions or
problem areas without aiming for conclusive answers. For instance, a study may delve
into unexplored market segments to better understand consumer behaviour patterns.
• Descriptive research delves into current issues by collecting and analyzing data to
describe the behaviour of a sample population. For instance, a survey may investigate
millennials’ spending habits to gain insights into their purchasing behaviours.
• Explanatory research, also known as causal research, seeks to understand the impact of
specific changes in existing procedures. An example might be a study examining how
changes in drug dosage over some time improve patients’ health.
• Correlational research examines connections between two sets of data to uncover
meaningful relationships. For instance, a study may analyze the relationship between
advertising spending and sales revenue.
• Theoretical research deepens existing knowledge without attempting to solve specific
problems. For example, a study may explore theoretical frameworks to understand the
underlying principles of human behaviour.
• Applied research focuses on real-world issues and aims to provide practical solutions. An
example could be a study investigating the effectiveness of a new teaching method in
improving student performance in schools. (4)
Three approaches to research
Deductive research
1. The deductive approach starts with a theory or a hypothesis.
2. The researcher tests the hypothesis through the collection
and analysis of data.
3. The researcher develops a research design and data
collection methods based on the theory or hypothesis.
4. The goal of this approach is to confirm or reject the
hypothesis.
5. Deductive thinking begins from a generalised proposition to a
specific conclusion
Inductive Research
Inductive Approach
• The inductive approach starts with the collection and
analysis of data.
• The researcher develops a theory or an explanation based
on the patterns and themes that emerge from the data.
• The goal of this approach is to generate a new theory or to
refine an existing one.
• The approach begins with data collection based on some
questions, proceeds to analysis and synthesis, leading to
theorising
• It is useful in emerging fields with weak theoretical
foundations
Abductive Research
Abductive Approach
• The abductive approach is a combination of deductive
and inductive approaches.
• It starts with a problem or a phenomenon that is not
fully understood, and the researcher develops a theory
or an explanation that can account for the data.
• The researcher then tests the theory through the
collection and analysis of more data.
• The goal of this approach is to generate a plausible
explanation or theory that can be further refined or
tested.
Approaches to conducting research
and data collection
• Quantitative approaches; approaches which gather
numeric data about phenomena and can utilise
statistical tools to discover the true status of the data.
• Qualitative approaches; these gather non numerical
data, in the form of views, opinions, observations
which define hard to measure variables.
• Mixed methods approaches where both approaches are
utilised to draw comprehensive understandings of
phenomena. The data may be complementary
Philosophy of Research
Philosophy provides a basis for understanding our own
assumptions about four interrelated issues:
1. The nature of the knowledge we are seeking
(epistemological assumptions)
2. The nature of the reality governing our world
(ontological assumptions)
3. The nature of the values underpinning our choices
(axiological assumptions)
4. The types of methods through which we can conduct
our research (methodological assumptions)
5.
Epistemological assumptions
• Epistemology is the study of knowledge, its nature and
scope and how the knowledge is understood and
valued, including its limits
• For some, knowledge that counts is that which can be
directly verified by the human senses (if you can not
count it or measure it, then it doesn’t exist)
• Knowledge must be quantifiable and measurable
• Knowledge is valid only to the extent that it can be
verified in directly measurable ways.
• If we believe this about knowledge, then quantitative
research becomes the acceptable way of researching
•
The Ontological Assumptions
• Ontology is the study of what constitutes people’s reality, the
nature of being
• It is the study of existence, how to determine if things exist or not
• It addresses fundamental questions such as ‘Does God exist; are
my feelings real, does nothing exist?
• Positivism assumes that what is real is physically quantifiable and
measurable
• Post positivism assumes that even that which can not be directly
measured has a reality unto itself (it is thus possible to research
people’s beliefs, perceptions and values)
• Colonialists believed that Blacks had a lesser existence than
whites and so treated them with prejudice and disdain
• If you believe that humans were created equally, then you will
treat all humans equally.
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The axiological assumptions
• Axiology is the study of the values which people hold dearly
• Some societies consider the group to be of greater value
than individuals (communalism and individualism)
• Some African societies believe that individual existence is
only possible because of the existence of others around
them (Ubuntu)
• Researchers who hold true the value of communalism will
usually prioritise focus group interviews over individual
interviews
• Axiology enables us to understand the values we hold
dearly in the research process as these will influence how
we conduct the research and how we will interpret the
data.
The methodological assumption
The methods we adopt will be dictated by:
1. The knowledge we are seeking (our epistemological
stance)
2. Our sense of being in the world and what we consider
to be real (our ontological stance)
3. Our set of values in life (our axiological stance)
4. Our prevailing research skills set (methodological
preference)
•
Why is research so important?
• Adds to the fund of knowledge and understanding
• Provide evidence for how people’s lives can be
positively improved
• Creates evidence bases upon which new ideas and
inventions can be produced
• Creates a basis for reimaging new frontiers in the
development of a discipline
• Defines the limits and opportunities for growth and
development in society
• Can be used to understand the past, the present and
predict the future
Our positionality as researchers
• Our positionality clarifies who we are in the research
endeavor
• It allows readers to know the aspects which influence our
methodological choices
• It provides a basis for readers to understand our analytic
perspectives and how we interpret some issues
• Writing a statement of one’s positionality might require some
reflection on the following:
1. Philosophical lens
2. Personal beliefs and values
3. Research training
4. Political beliefs, social standing, race, gender. Whichever
bears heavily on critical research decisions etc.
Some individual and group work
1. Define research (use two definitions and remember
the authors names)
2. Identify, explain and exemplify five crucial terms
emanating from the definitions
3. What purposes does research serve? Illustrate your
answers with examples)
4. Which of inductive, deductive and abductive research
lies closest to your preference. Say why
5. Who are you as a researcher? Write a 300-word
summary about your positionality as a researcher
Learning resources
Best books:
1. Johnson, R, B, & Christensen, L. (2019), Educational
Research: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed
Approaches University of Alabama: Routledge
2. Cohen, L. Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2018) Research
Methods in Education, London: Routledge
Good articles on paradigmatic issues in
educational research:
1. Kivunja C. 1 & Kuyini, A. B. (2017) Understanding and
Applying Research Paradigms in Educational Contexts,
International Journal of Higher Education, 6(5):26-34
Homework
Write no more than 2 pages on positivism or post
positivism in relation to educational research and include
the following:
1. A definition with references
2. A philosophical theory underpinning positivism
3. Epistemological assumptions
4. Ontological assumptions
5. Axiological assumptions
6. Methodological assumptions
7. An example of a topic you would research using this
paradigm.
8.