Faculty of Science and Technology

School of Electrical and Communication Sciences

S.Y. B. Tech. (Electrical Engineering)

Course Name: Analog and Digital Circuits Course Code: 240GEEB02_03

Unit II BJT and its Applications (05 Hours)

BJT Amplifier: Introduction, types, Class A amplifier, AC-DC load line analysis, Single stage
and Multistage BJT amplifier, direct coupled, RC coupled, and transformer coupled, Push-
Pull amplifier and differential amplifier.

2.1 Introduction: BJT Amplifier

What is BJT Amplifier?
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that uses
bipolar junction transistors to amplify electrical signals. Bipolar junction transistors are
three-layer semiconductor devices that consist of an N-type layer (negatively doped), a P-
type layer (positively doped), and another N-type layer.
BJTs are of two types:
 NPN
 PNP
NPN Transistor
In NPN transistor left and right semiconductor are N-type and
middle semiconductor is P-type and the direction of the current
outside, towards the Emitter as shown in fig.
NPN Transistor

PNP Transistor
In PNP transistor the N-type diode is sandwich between the two P-
type semiconductor and the direction of the current is going into the
p-type as shown in below fig.
PNP Transistor

Working Principle of BJT Amplifiers

An active region that is biased is the NPN transistor. In this case, the collector-base
junction is reverse biased while the base-emitter junction is forward biased. Therefore, as
compared to the collector-base junction's width, the base-emitter junction's depletion

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region's width is less. By lowering the barrier potential and facilitating the flow of current
from the emitter to the base, the forward biased BE junction will aid.

NPN transistor bases often have fewer holes than the electrons in the emitter because they
are narrow and mildly doped. The base current flows as a result of holes in the base
recombining with electrons in the emitter region.

The emitter current is equal to the total of the base current and collector current, as stated
by Kirchhoff's Current Law. In general, the emitter current (IE) and collector current (IC)
will always be greater than the base current (IB).

IE = IC + IB

Circuit Diagram
If we considered the circuit input signal is given and then its respected output is out of
phase. The signal is amplify in the BJT uses a technique known as current amplification to
amplify signals. There are three layers in it: base, collector, and emitter. The base is narrow
and mildly doped, the emitter is substantially doped, and the collector is moderately doped.
Electrons (or holes in PNP) flow from the emitter to the base of the base-emitter junction
when voltage is supplied, causing the junction to become forward-biased. The majority of
electrons don't recombine and proceed to the collector because of the thinness and light
doping of the base. Signal amplification occurs when this movement produces an output
current at the collector circuit that is greater than the input current at the base circuit.

Amplifier Circuit diagram

In Common emitter configuration (NPN)

According to the kirchhoff Current law.
IE = IC + IB
Input A.C signal phase -> 0 degree.
Output generated signal phase -> 180 degree.

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2.2 Types

Amplifiers are classified according to many considerations.

2.2.1 Based on number of stages

Depending upon the number of stages of Amplification, there are Single-stage amplifiers and
Multi-stage amplifiers.

 Single-stage Amplifiers − This has only one transistor circuit, which is a single stage
amplification.
 Multi-stage Amplifiers − This has multiple transistor circuit, which provides multi-
stage amplification.

2.2.2 Based on its output

Depending upon the parameter that is amplified at the output, there are voltage and power
amplifiers.

 Voltage Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that increases the voltage level of the
input signal, is called as Voltage amplifier.
 Power Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that increases the power level of the input
signal, is called as Power amplifier.

2.2.3 Based on the input signals

Depending upon the magnitude of the input signal applied, they can be categorized as Small
signal and large signal amplifiers.

 Small signal Amplifiers − When the input signal is so weak so as to produce small
fluctuations in the collector current compared to its quiescent value, the amplifier is
known as Small signal amplifier.
 Large signal amplifiers − When the fluctuations in collector current are large i.e.
beyond the linear portion of the characteristics, the amplifier is known as large signal
amplifier.

2.2.4 Based on the frequency range

Depending upon the frequency range of the signals being used, there are audio and radio
amplifiers.

 Audio Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that amplifies the signals that lie in the
audio frequency range i.e. from 20Hz to 20 KHz frequency range, is called as audio
amplifier.
 Power Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that amplifies the signals that lie in a very
high frequency range, is called as Power amplifier.

2.2.5 Based on Biasing Conditions

Depending upon their mode of operation, there are class A, class B and class C amplifiers.
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  Class A amplifier − The biasing conditions in class A power amplifier are such that
the collector current flows for the entire AC signal applied.
 Class B amplifier − The biasing conditions in class B power amplifier are such that
the collector current flows for half-cycle of input AC signal applied.
 Class C amplifier − The biasing conditions in class C power amplifier are such that
the collector current flows for less than half cycle of input AC signal applied.
 Class AB amplifier − The class AB power amplifier is one which is created by
combining both class A and class B in order to have all the advantages of both the
classes and to minimize the problems they have.

2.2.6 Based on the Coupling method

Depending upon the method of coupling one stage to the other, there are RC coupled,
Transformer coupled and direct coupled amplifier.

 RC Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to the next

stage using resistor and capacitor (RC) combination can be called as a RC coupled
amplifier.
 Transformer Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to
the next stage, with the help of a transformer, can be called as a Transformer coupled
amplifier.
 Direct Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to the
next stage directly, can be called as a direct coupled amplifier.

2.2.7 Based on the Transistor Configuration

Depending upon the type of transistor configuration, there are CE CB and CC amplifiers.

 CE amplifier − The amplifier circuit that is formed using a CE configured transistor

combination is called as CE amplifier.
 CB amplifier − The amplifier circuit that is formed using a CB configured transistor
combination is called as CB amplifier.
 CC amplifier − The amplifier circuit that is formed using a CC configured transistor
combination is called as CC amplifier.

BJT works in the 3 configuration as mention below:

 Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
 Common Base (CB) Configuration
 Common Collector (CC) Configuration

Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

 The emitter terminal in this setup is shared by the input and output.
 It provides voltage gain and high power gain.
 Commonly used for amplifying weak signals.

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 Common emitter configuration

Common Base (CB) Configuration

 The base terminal in this setup is shared by the input and output.
 It provides current gain and low input impedance.
 It is often used in high-frequency applications.

Common-Base configuration

Common Collector (CC) Configuration

 In common collector configuration, the collector terminal is common to both the input
and output.
 It provides voltage gain less than unity but has high current gain.
 It is useful for impedance matching between stages of a multi-stage amplifier.

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 Common-collector configuration

Characteristics of BJT Amplifier

BJT amplifier working in the three regions which are mentioned below , also Input - output
characteristics of the BJT is shown in below figure, where:
AV -> slope of the curve in the active region
VO -> Output voltage of respective input voltage.

In cutoff and saturation region BJT act as the switch and in the Active region BJT as
the amplifier.

characteristics of BJT amplifier

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Active region
In the active region, the signal gets amplified and the phase reverses from 00 (degree) to
1800 (degree). This region is in between active and saturation region. Transistor is operate
in this region when collector is reverse and emitter is forward biased.

Active region

IC = IB . β
IC -> Collector current.
β -> current amplification factor.

Saturation region
Next region in transistor behave as a close switch.
Collector and emitter are shorted. The CE current is
maximum in the saturation region.
Here, in this region
IC = IE
IC -> collector current, IE -> emitter current

Saturation region

Cutoff region
In this region transistor behave as a open switch, hence current between collector, emitter
and base is zero.

Here ,

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IB = IC = IE = 0 (No current flow)
IB -> Base current
IC -> Collector current
IE -> Emitter current

Cut off region

Comparison between CB CE CC Amplifiers

Characteristic CE CB CC
Input resistance Low (1K to 2K) Very low (30-150 Ω) High (20-500 KΩ)
Output resistance Large (≈ 50 K) High (≈ 500 K) Low (50-1000 KΩ)
Current gain B high α<1 High (1 + β)
Voltage gain High (≈ 1500) High (≈ 1500) Less than one
Power gain High (≈ 10,000) High (≈ 7500) Low (250-500)
Phase between input and
reversed same same
output

BJT Amplifier Formula

In BJT we have CE, CC and CB:

Current Gain
We have Alpha (α), Beta(β).

Alpha (α) is defined as the ratio of the collector current to the base current α = IC / IB .

Beta(β) is defined as the ratio of the collector current to the Emitter current β = IC/IE .

We know that,
IE = IC + IB
Relation between α and β, given below
α = IC / IB => α . IB = IC ,
β = IC / IE => β . IE = IC ,

α = β / (β + 1)

IE = IC / α = IB.(1 + β)

Current Loss
However a BJT has two P-N junctions and three terminals. When BJT is biased in its active
region, the collector base junction is reverse biased. The collector base junction reverse
saturation current is the emitter current in the absence of base current. This is also called
leakage current.

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2.4 AC-DC load line analysis
2.4.1 Transistor Biasing

The supply of suitable external dc voltage is called as biasing. Either forward or reverse
biasing is done to the emitter and collector junctions of the transistor.

These biasing methods make the transistor circuit to work in four kinds of regions such
as Active region, Saturation region, Cutoff region and Inverse active region (seldom used).
This is understood by having a look at the following table.

Emitter Junction Collector Junction Region of Operation

Forward biased Forward biased Saturation region
Forward biased Reverse biased Active region
Reverse biased Forward biased Inverse active region
Reverse biased Reverse biased Cut off region

2.4.2 Load Line

When a value for the maximum possible collector current is considered, that point will be
present on the Y-axis, which is nothing but the Saturation point. As well, when a value for
the maximum possible collector emitter voltage is considered, that point will be present on
the X-axis, which is the Cutoff point.
When a line is drawn joining these two points, such a line can be called as Load line. This is
called so as it symbolizes the output at the load. This line, when drawn over the output
characteristic curve, makes contact at a point called as Operating point or quiescent
point or simply Q-point.

The concept of load line can be understood from the following graph.

The load line is drawn by joining the saturation and cut off points. The region that lies
between these two is the linear region. A transistor acts as a good amplifier in this linear
region.
If this load line is drawn only when DC biasing is given to the transistor, but no input signal
is applied, then such a load line is called as DC load line. Whereas the load line drawn under

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the conditions when an input signal along with the DC voltages are applied, such a line is
called as an AC load line.

2.4.2a DC Load Line

When the transistor is given the bias and no signal is applied at its input, the load line drawn
under such conditions, can be understood as DC condition. Here there will be no
amplification as the signal is absent. The circuit will be as shown below.

The value of collector emitter voltage at any given time will be

VCE=VCC−ICRC

As VCC and RC are fixed values, the above one is a first degree equation and hence will be a
straight line on the output characteristics. This line is called as D.C. Load line. The figure
below shows the DC load line.

To obtain the load line, the two end points of the straight line are to be determined. Let those
two points be A and B.

To obtain A
When collector emitter voltage VCE = 0, the collector current is maximum and is equal to
VCC/RC. This gives the maximum value of VCE. This is shown as

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 VCE=VCC−ICRC

0=VCC−ICRC0

IC=VCC/RC

This gives the point A (OA = VCC/RC) on collector current axis, shown in the above figure.

To obtain B
When the collector current IC = 0, then collector emitter voltage is maximum and will be
equal to the VCC. This gives the maximum value of IC. This is shown as

VCE=VCC−ICRC

VCE =VCC (as IC = 0)

This gives the point B, which means (OB = VCC) on the collector emitter voltage axis shown
in the above figure.

Hence we got both the saturation and cutoff point determined and learnt that the load line is a
straight line. So, a DC load line can be drawn.

2.4.2b AC Load Line

The DC load line discussed previously, analyzes the variation of collector currents and
voltages, when no AC voltage is applied. Whereas the AC load line gives the peak-to-peak
voltage, or the maximum possible output swing for a given amplifier.

We shall consider an AC equivalent circuit of a CE amplifier for our understanding.

From the above figure,

VCE=(RC//R1)×IC

rC=RC//R1

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For a transistor to operate as an amplifier, it should stay in active region. The quiescent point
is so chosen in such a way that the maximum input signal excursion is symmetrical on both
negative and positive half cycles.

Hence,

Vmax=VCEQ and Vmin=−VCEQ

Where VCEQ is the emitter-collector voltage at quiescent point

The following graph represents the AC load line which is drawn between saturation and cut
off points.

From the graph above, the current IC at the saturation point is

IC(sat)=ICQ+(VCEQ/rC)

The voltage VCE at the cutoff point is

VCE(off)=VCEQ+ICQrC

Hence the maximum current for that corresponding VCEQ = VCEQ / (RC // R1) is

ICQ=ICQ∗(RC//R1)

Hence by adding quiescent currents the end points of AC load line are

IC(sat)=ICQ+VCEQ/(RC//R1)

VCE(off)=VCEQ+ICQ∗(RC//R1)

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AC and DC Load Line
When AC and DC Load lines are represented in a graph, it can be understood that they are
not identical. Both of these lines intersect at the Q-point or quiescent point. The endpoints
of AC load line are saturation and cut off points. This is understood from the figure below.

From the above figure, it is understood that the quiescent point (the dark dot) is obtained
when the value of base current IB is 10mA. This is the point where both the AC and DC load
lines intersect.

When a line is drawn joining the saturation and cut off points, such a line can be called
as Load line. This line, when drawn over the output characteristic curve, makes contact at a
point called as Operating point.

This operating point is also called as quiescent point or simply Q-point. There can be many
such intersecting points, but the Q-point is selected in such a way that irrespective of AC
signal swing, the transistor remains in the active region.

The following graph shows how to represent the operating point.

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The operating point should not get disturbed as it should remain stable to achieve faithful
amplification. Hence the quiescent point or Q-point is the value where the Faithful
Amplification is achieved.

For Your Information

Faithful Amplification
The process of increasing the signal strength is called as Amplification. This amplification
when done without any loss in the components of the signal, is called as Faithful
amplification.
Faithful amplification is the process of obtaining complete portions of input signal by
increasing the signal strength. This is done when AC signal is applied at its input.

In the above graph, the input signal applied is completely amplified and reproduced without
any losses. This can be understood as Faithful Amplification.
The operating point is so chosen such that it lies in the active region and it helps in the
reproduction of complete signal without any loss.
If the operating point is considered near saturation point, then the amplification will be as
under.
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If the operation point is considered near cut off point, then the amplification will be as under.

Hence the placement of operating point is an important factor to achieve faithful

amplification. But for the transistor to function properly as an amplifier, its input circuit (i.e.,

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the base-emitter junction) remains forward biased and its output circuit (i.e., collector-base
junction) remains reverse biased.
The amplified signal thus contains the same information as in the input signal whereas the
strength of the signal is increased.

Advantages and Disadvantages of BJT Amplifier

The advantages and disadvantages of BJT amplifier are shown below:
Advantage
 The gain bandwidth of the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is broad.
 High frequency performance is greater with the BJT.
 The voltage gain of the BJT is superior.
 Applications requiring low or high power can use the BJT.
 The current density of the BJT is high.
 The forward voltage drop is minimal.
Disadvantage
 More noise was created by the bipolar junction transistor (BJT).
 Radiation has a greater effect on BJT.
 The thermal stability of BJT is low.
 BJT switches at a low frequency.
 Its base control is extremely intricate. Thus, it needs to be handled carefully and could
cause confusion.

Application of BJT amplifier

 BJT used as amplifier in active region.
 BJT used as Switch in Cutoff region, Saturation region.
 Direct current (DC) signals can be produced by rectifying alternating current (AC)
signals using BJTs.
 In order to increase the power of audio signals, BJTs are frequently utilized in audio
amplifiers.
 BJTs can be used as current sensors in circuits where it's critical to monitor and regulate
the flow of current.

2.3 Class A amplifier

A Class A amplifier is a type of amplifier configuration where the output transistor conducts
for the entire cycle (360°) of the input signal. It’s known for high linearity and low distortion,
making it suitable for applications requiring high-fidelity amplification, like in audio systems.

Key Features of Class A Amplifier

1. Operation:
o The output device (usually a transistor) remains active and conducts
throughout the entire input signal cycle.
o This continuous operation ensures that the output waveform closely follows
the input waveform, producing low harmonic distortion.
2. Biasing:
o The transistor in a Class A amplifier is biased such that it remains "ON" at all
times, even without an input signal.

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 o This biasing is achieved by setting the operating point (Q-point) in the middle
of the active region of the transistor's load line.
3. Efficiency:
o Class A amplifiers are typically inefficient, with efficiency around 25-30% in
ideal conditions.
o Most of the power is dissipated as heat because the transistor continuously
draws current, even with no input signal.
4. Distortion:
o Class A amplifiers offer minimal signal distortion, resulting in high-quality,
linear amplification.
o This low distortion makes Class A amplifiers popular in high-fidelity audio
applications, where sound quality is paramount.
5. Thermal Management:
o Due to continuous conduction and high heat dissipation, effective cooling
mechanisms like heatsinks are essential.
o Proper thermal design is critical to prevent overheating and maintain the
amplifier’s longevity.

Basic Circuit Configuration

In a typical Class A amplifier circuit:

 Input Stage: An input signal is fed to the base of an NPN or PNP transistor through a
coupling capacitor.
 Load Resistor: A resistor is connected to the collector of the transistor, which
controls the output signal level and helps define the amplifier’s gain.
 Biasing Network: Resistors or a constant current source establish the Q-point,
ensuring the transistor remains in the active region.
 Output Coupling: An output capacitor couples the amplified AC signal to the load
(e.g., speaker) and blocks any DC component.

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Efficiency Calculation

The efficiency of a Class A amplifier depends on how the input power is converted to output
power. For a purely resistive load, the maximum theoretical efficiency is around 25%. With a
transformer-coupled load, efficiency can reach up to 50%, though this is still low compared
to other amplifier classes (such as Class B or Class D).

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages
Low distortion and high linearity Low efficiency
Simple design High power dissipation
Excellent frequency response Requires large heatsinks
Good for high-quality audio Larger and bulkier compared to other amplifiers

Applications of Class A Amplifiers

1. Audio Amplifiers: Due to their high linearity and low distortion, Class A amplifiers
are widely used in high-end audio equipment for accurate sound reproduction.
2. RF Amplifiers: Class A amplifiers are also used in low-power RF amplification
where fidelity and signal quality are critical.
3. Signal Amplifiers: Suitable for preamplification stages in audio and instrumentation
due to the quality of the amplified signal.

2.5 Single stage and Multistage BJT amplifier

2.5.1 Single-stage Transistor Amplifier

When only one transistor with associated circuitry is used for amplifying a weak signal, the
circuit is known as single-stage amplifier.

A Single stage transistor amplifier has one transistor, bias circuit and other auxiliary
components. The following circuit diagram shows how a single stage transistor amplifier
looks like.

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When a weak input signal is given to the base of the transistor as shown in the figure, a small
amount of base current flows. Due to the transistor action, a larger current flows in the
collector of the transistor. (As the collector current is β times of the base current which means
IC = βIB). Now, as the collector current increases, the voltage drop across the resistor RC also
increases, which is collected as the output.
Hence a small input at the base gets amplified as the signal of larger magnitude and strength
at the collector output. Hence this transistor acts as an amplifier.

Practical Circuit of a Transistor Amplifier

The circuit of a practical transistor amplifier is as shown below, which represents a voltage
divider biasing circuit.

The various prominent circuit elements and their functions are as described below.

 Biasing Circuit
The resistors R1, R2 and RE form the biasing and stabilization circuit, which helps in
establishing a proper operating point.
 Input Capacitor Cin
This capacitor couples the input signal to the base of the transistor. The input capacitor
Cin allows AC signal, but isolates the signal source from R2. If this capacitor is not present,
the input signal gets directly applied, which changes the bias at R2.
 Coupling Capacitor CC
This capacitor is present at the end of one stage and connects it to the other stage. As it
couples two stages it is called as coupling capacitor. This capacitor blocks DC of one stage
to enter the other but allows AC to pass. Hence it is also called as blocking capacitor.
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Due to the presence of coupling capacitor CC, the output across the resistor RL is free from
the collector’s DC voltage. If this is not present, the bias conditions of the next stage will be
drastically changed due to the shunting effect of RC, as it would come in parallel to R2 of the
next stage.
 Emitter by-pass capacitor CE
This capacitor is employed in parallel to the emitter resistor RE. The amplified AC signal is
by passed through this. If this is not present, that signal will pass through RE which produces
a voltage drop across RE that will feedback the input signal reducing the output voltage.
 The Load resistor RL
The resistance RL connected at the output is known as Load resistor. When a number of
stages are used, then RL represents the input resistance of the next stage.

Various Circuit currents

Let us go through various circuit currents in the complete amplifier circuit. These are already
mentioned in the above figure.
Base Current
When no signal is applied in the base circuit, DC base current IB flows due to biasing circuit.
When AC signal is applied, AC base current ib also flows. Therefore, with the application of
signal, total base current iB is given by
iB=IB+ib
Collector Current
When no signal is applied, a DC collector current IC flows due to biasing circuit. When AC
signal is applied, AC collector current ic also flows. Therefore, the total collector current iC is
given by
iC=IC+ic
Where
IC=βIB zero signal collecor current
ic=βib collecor current due to signal
Emitter Current
When no signal is applied, a DC emitter current IE flows. With the application of signal, total
emitter current iE is given by
iE=IE+ie
It should be remembered that
IE=IB+IC
ie=ib+ic
As base current is usually small, it is to be noted that
IE≅IC and ie≅ic

In practical applications, the output of a single state amplifier is usually insufficient, though it
is a voltage or power amplifier. Hence they are replaced by Multi-stage transistor
amplifiers.

2.5.2 Multi-stage transistor amplifiers

In Multi-stage amplifiers, the output of first stage is coupled to the input of next stage using a
coupling device. These coupling devices can usually be a capacitor or a transformer. This
process of joining two amplifier stages using a coupling device can be called as Cascading.
The following figure shows a two-stage amplifier connected in cascade.

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The overall gain is the product of voltage gain of individual stages.
AV=AV1×AV2=V2V1×V0V2=V0V1

Where AV = Overall gain, AV1 = Voltage gain of 1st stage, and AV2 = Voltage gain of
2nd stage.

If there are n number of stages, the product of voltage gains of those n stages will be the
overall gain of that multistage amplifier circuit.

For Your Information

Purpose of coupling device

The basic purposes of a coupling device are
 To transfer the AC from the output of one stage to the input of next stage.
 To block the DC to pass from the output of one stage to the input of next stage, which
means to isolate the DC conditions.

Types of Coupling
Joining one amplifier stage with the other in cascade, using coupling devices form a Multi-
stage amplifier circuit. There are four basic methods of coupling, using these coupling
devices such as resistors, capacitors, transformers etc. Let us have an idea about them.
 Resistance-Capacitance Coupling
This is the mostly used method of coupling, formed using simple resistor-
capacitor combination. The capacitor which allows AC and blocks DC is the main
coupling element used here.
The coupling capacitor passes the AC from the output of one stage to the input of its
next stage. While blocking the DC components from DC bias voltages to effect the
next stage.
 Impedance Coupling
The coupling network that uses inductance and capacitance as coupling elements
can be called as Impedance coupling network.
In this impedance coupling method, the impedance of coupling coil depends on its
inductance and signal frequency which is jwL. This method is not so popular and is
seldom employed.
 Transformer Coupling
The coupling method that uses a transformer as the coupling device can be called as
Transformer coupling. There is no capacitor used in this method of coupling because
the transformer itself conveys the AC component directly to the base of second stage.
The secondary winding of the transformer provides a base return path and hence there
is no need of base resistance. This coupling is popular for its efficiency and its
impedance matching and hence it is mostly used.
 Direct Coupling
If the previous amplifier stage is connected to the next amplifier stage directly, it is
called as direct coupling. The individual amplifier stage bias conditions are so
designed that the stages can be directly connected without DC isolation.
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The direct coupling method is mostly used when the load is connected in series, with the
output terminal of the active circuit element. For example, head-phones, loud speakers etc.

2.6 Direct coupled

As no coupling devices are used, the coupling of the amplifier stages is done directly and
hence called as Direct coupled amplifier.

Construction
The figure below indicates the three stage direct coupled transistor amplifier. The output of
first stage transistor T1 is connected to the input of second stage transistor T2.

The transistor in the first stage will be an NPN transistor, while the transistor in the next stage
will be a PNP transistor and so on. This is because, the variations in one transistor tend to
cancel the variations in the other. The rise in the collector current and the variation in β of
one transistor gets cancelled by the decrease in the other.

Operation
The input signal when applied at the base of transistor T1, it gets amplified due to the
transistor action and the amplified output appears at the collector resistor Rc of transistor T1.
This output is applied to the base of transistor T2 which further amplifies the signal. In this
way, a signal is amplified in a direct coupled amplifier circuit.

Advantages
 The circuit arrangement is simple because of minimum use of resistors.
 The circuit is of low cost because of the absence of expensive coupling devices.

Disadvantages
 It cannot be used for amplifying high frequencies.
 The operating point is shifted due to temperature variations.
Applications
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  Low frequency amplifications.
 Low current amplifications.

2.7 RC coupled
Construction of a Two-stage RC Coupled Amplifier
The constructional details of a two-stage RC coupled transistor amplifier circuit are as
follows. The two stage amplifier circuit has two transistors, connected in CE configuration
and a common power supply VCC is used. The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the
resistor Re form the biasing and stabilization network. The emitter by-pass capacitor Ce offers
a low reactance path to the signal.
The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input capacitor Cin present at the initial stage
of the amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor. The capacitor C C is the
coupling capacitor that connects two stages and prevents DC interference between the stages
and controls the shift of operating point. The figure below shows the circuit diagram of RC
coupled amplifier.

Operation of RC Coupled Amplifier

When an AC input signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it gets amplified and
appears at the collector load RL which is then passed through the coupling capacitor CC to the
next stage. This becomes the input of the next stage, whose amplified output again appears
across its collector load. Thus the signal is amplified in stage by stage action.
The important point that has to be noted here is that the total gain is less than the product of
the gains of individual stages. This is because when a second stage is made to follow the first
stage, the effective load resistance of the first stage is reduced due to the shunting effect of
the input resistance of the second stage. Hence, in a multistage amplifier, only the gain of the
last stage remains unchanged.
As we consider a two stage amplifier here, the output phase is same as input. Because
the phase reversal is done two times by the two stage CE configured amplifier circuit.

Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier

Frequency response curve is a graph that indicates the relationship between voltage gain and
function of frequency. The frequency response of a RC coupled amplifier is as shown in the
following graph.

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From the above graph, it is understood that the frequency rolls off or decreases for the
frequencies below 50Hz and for the frequencies above 20 KHz. whereas the voltage gain for
the range of frequencies between 50Hz and 20 KHz is constant.
We know that,
XC=1/2πfc
It means that the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency.

At Low frequencies (i.e. below 50 Hz)

The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. At low frequencies, the
reactance is quite high. The reactance of input capacitor Cin and the coupling capacitor CC are
so high that only small part of the input signal is allowed. The reactance of the emitter by
pass capacitor CE is also very high during low frequencies. Hence it cannot shunt the emitter
resistance effectively. With all these factors, the voltage gain rolls off at low frequencies.

At High frequencies (i.e. above 20 KHz)

Again considering the same point, we know that the capacitive reactance is low at high
frequencies. So, a capacitor behaves as a short circuit, at high frequencies. As a result of this,
the loading effect of the next stage increases, which reduces the voltage gain. Along with this,
as the capacitance of emitter diode decreases, it increases the base current of the transistor
due to which the current gain (β) reduces. Hence the voltage gain rolls off at high
frequencies.

At Mid-frequencies (i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz)

The voltage gain of the capacitors is maintained constant in this range of frequencies, as
shown in figure. If the frequency increases, the reactance of the capacitor CC decreases which
tends to increase the gain. But this lower capacitance reactive increases the loading effect of
the next stage by which there is a reduction in gain.
Due to these two factors, the gain is maintained constant.

Advantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

 The frequency response of RC amplifier provides constant gain over a wide frequency
range, hence most suitable for audio applications.
 The circuit is simple and has lower cost because it employs resistors and capacitors
which are cheap.
 It becomes more compact with the upgrading technology.
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Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier
 The voltage and power gain are low because of the effective load resistance.
 They become noisy with age.
 Due to poor impedance matching, power transfer will be low.

Applications of RC Coupled Amplifier

 They have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency.
 Widely used as Voltage amplifiers
 Due to poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in the final stages.

2.8 Transformer coupled

We have observed that the main drawback of RC coupled amplifier is that the effective load
resistance gets reduced. This is because, the input impedance of an amplifier is low, while its
output impedance is high.

When they are coupled to make a multistage amplifier, the high output impedance of one
stage comes in parallel with the low input impedance of next stage. Hence, effective load
resistance is decreased. This problem can be overcome by a transformer coupled amplifier.

In a transformer-coupled amplifier, the stages of amplifier are coupled using a transformer.

Construction of Transformer Coupled Amplifier

The amplifier circuit in which, the previous stage is connected to the next stage using a
coupling transformer, is called as Transformer coupled amplifier.

The coupling transformer T1 is used to feed the output of 1st stage to the input of 2nd stage.
The collector load is replaced by the primary winding of the transformer. The secondary
winding is connected between the potential divider and the base of 2nd stage, which provides
the input to the 2nd stage. Instead of coupling capacitor like in RC coupled amplifier, a
transformer is used for coupling any two stages, in the transformer coupled amplifier circuit.

The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor Re together form the biasing and
stabilization network. The emitter by-pass capacitor Ce offers a low reactance path to the
signal. The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input capacitor Cin present at the
initial stage of the amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor. The capacitor
CC is the coupling capacitor that connects two stages and prevents DC interference between
the stages and controls the shift of operating point.

The figure below shows the circuit diagram of transformer coupled amplifier.

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Operation of Transformer Coupled Amplifier

When an AC signal is applied to the input of the base of the first transistor then it gets
amplified by the transistor and appears at the collector to which the primary of the
transformer is connected.

The transformer which is used as a coupling device in this circuit has the property of
impedance changing, which means the low resistance of a stage (or load) can be reflected as a
high load resistance to the previous stage. Hence the voltage at the primary is transferred
according to the turns ratio of the secondary winding of the transformer.

This transformer coupling provides good impedance matching between the stages of
amplifier. The transformer coupled amplifier is generally used for power amplification.

Frequency Response of Transformer Coupled Amplifier

The figure below shows the frequency response of a transformer coupled amplifier. The gain
of the amplifier is constant only for a small range of frequencies. The output voltage is equal
to the collector current multiplied by the reactance of primary.

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At low frequencies, the reactance of primary begins to fall, resulting in decreased gain. At
high frequencies, the capacitance between turns of windings acts as a bypass condenser to
reduce the output voltage and hence gain.

So, the amplification of audio signals will not be proportionate and some distortion will also
get introduced, which is called as Frequency distortion.

Advantages of Transformer Coupled Amplifier

 An excellent impedance matching is provided.
 Gain achieved is higher.
 There will be no power loss in collector and base resistors.
 Efficient in operation.

Disadvantages of Transformer Coupled Amplifier

 Though the gain is high, it varies considerably with frequency. Hence a poor
frequency response.
 Frequency distortion is higher.
 Transformers tend to produce hum noise.
 Transformers are bulky and costly.

Applications
 Mostly used for impedance matching purposes.
 Used for Power amplification.
 Used in applications where maximum power transfer is needed.

Comparisons

Let us try to compare the characteristics of different types of coupling methods discussed till
now.

S. Transformer
Particular RC Coupling Direct Coupling
No. Coupling
Excellent in audio
1 Frequency response Poor Best
frequency range
2 Cost Less More Least
3 Space and Weight Less More Least
4 Impedance matching Not good Excellent Good
For voltage For Power For amplifying extremely
5 Use
amplification amplification low frequencies

2.9 Push-Pull amplifier

A push-pull amplifier is a type of amplifier that can drive current in either direction through
the load. In terms of distortion and performance, push-pull amplifiers are more efficient
than single-ended amplifier because of its push-pull arrangement.
In this arrangement, one transistor amplifies the positive half cycle whereas another transistor
amplifies the negative half cycle of the signal i.e. whole signal is amplified at the output.

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The output stage of a typical push-pull amplifier comprises two identical BJT’s
or MOSFET’s i.e one source current through the load while another sink current from the
load.

Push-pull Amplifier Details:

All audio power amplifiers used in the record player, transistor radio receivers, tape recorders
etc make use of push-pull arrangement because these systems are usually operated by
batteries where efficiency is the primary factor. Let’s have a look at its circuit diagram and
operation.

Push Pull Circuit Diagram Explanation:

In Push-pull arrangement, the two identical transistors T1 and T2 have their emitter terminals
shorted. The input signal is applied to the transistors through the transformer Tr1 which
provides opposite polarity signals to both the transistor bases. The collectors of both the
transistors are connected to the primary of output transformer Tr2. Both the transformers are
center tapped. The VCC supply is provided to the collectors of both the transistors through the
primary of the output transformer.

The resistors R1 and R2 provide the biasing arrangement. The load is generally a loudspeaker
which is connected across the secondary of the output transformer. The turns ratio of the
output transformer is chosen in such a way that the load is well matched with the output
impedance of the transistor. So maximum power is delivered to the load by the amplifier.

Circuit Operation

The output is collected from the output transformer Tr2. The primary of this transformer
Tr2 has practically no dc component through it. The transistors T1 and T2 have their collectors
connected to the primary of transformer Tr2 so that their currents are equal in magnitude and
flow in opposite directions through the primary of transformer Tr2.
When the a.c. input signal is applied, the base of transistor T1 is more positive while the base
of transistor T2 is less positive. Hence the collector current ic1 of transistor T1 increases while
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the collector current ic2 of transistor T2 decreases. These currents flow in opposite directions
in two halves of the primary of output transformer. Moreover, the flux produced by these
currents will also be in opposite directions.
Hence, the voltage across the load will be induced voltage whose magnitude will be
proportional to the difference of collector currents i.e.
(ic1−ic2
Similarly, for the negative input signal, the collector current ic2 will be more than ic1. In this
case, the voltage developed across the load will again be due to the difference
(ic1−ic2) As ic2>ic1
The polarity of voltage induced across load will be reversed.
ic1−ic2=ic1+(−ic2)
To have a better understanding, let us consider the below figure.

The overall operation results in an a.c. voltage induced in the secondary of output transformer
and hence a.c. power is delivered to that load.
It is understood that, during any given half cycle of input signal, one transistor is being driven
(or pushed) deep into conduction while the other being non-conducting (pulled out). Hence
the name Push-pull amplifier. The harmonic distortion in Push-pull amplifier is minimized
such that all the even harmonics are eliminated.

Advantages
 High a.c. output is obtained.
 The output is free from even harmonics.
 The effect of ripple voltages are balanced out. These are present in the power supply
due to inadequate filtering.

Disadvantages
 The transistors are to be identical, to produce equal amplification.
 Center-tapping is required for the transformers.
 The transformers are bulky and costly.

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2.10 Differential amplifier
The differential amplifier circuit using transistors can be designed as shown in the figure
below which consists of two transistors T1 and T2. These transistors and resistors are
connected as shown in the circuit diagram.

Circuit using Transistors

There are two inputs I1 & I2 and two outputs V1out & V2out in the differential amplifier circuit.
The input I1 is applied to the transistor T1 base terminal, input I2 is applied to the transistor T2
base terminal. The emitter terminals of transistor T1 and transistor T2 are connected to a
common emitter resistor. Thus, the two input signals I1 & I2 will affect the outputs V1out &
V2out. The differential amplifier circuit consists of two supply voltages Vcc and Vee but there
is no ground terminal. Even with single voltage supply also circuit can be operated fine as it
is intended (similarly while using two supply voltages). Hence, the opposite points of positive
voltage supply & negative voltage supply are connected to the ground.

Working
The differential amplifier working can be easily understood by giving one input (say at I1 as
shown in the below figure) and which produces output at both the output terminals.

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 Amplifier Working

If the input signal (I1) is supplied to the base of transistor T1, then a high voltage drop appears
across the resistor connected to the transistor T1 collector terminal which will get less
positive. If no input signal (I1) is supplied to the base of transistor T1, then a low voltage drop
appears across the resistor connected to the transistor T1 collector terminal which will get
more positive. Thus, we can say that the inverting output appearing across the collector
terminal of transistor T1 is based on the input signal I1 supplied at the base terminal of T1.

If T1 is turned ON by applying the positive value of I1, then the current passing through
emitter resistance increases as the emitter current & collector current is almost equal. Thus, if
the voltage drops across emitter resistance increases, then the emitter of both the transistors
goes in a positive direction. If the transistor T2 emitter is positive, then the base of T2 will be
negative and in this condition, current conduction is less.

Thus, there will be less voltage drop across the resistor connected at the collector terminal of
transistor T2. Hence, for the given positive input signal collector of T2 will go in a positive
direction. Thus, we can say that the non-inverting output appearing across the collector
terminal of transistor T2 is based on the input signal applied at the base of T1.

The amplification can be driven differentially by taking output between the collector
terminals of transistors T1 and T2. From the above circuit diagram, assuming all the
characteristics of transistors T1 & T2 are identical and if base voltages Vb1 is equal to Vb2
(base voltage of transistor T1 is equal to base voltage of transistor T2), then emitter currents
of both transistors will be equal (Iem1=Iem2). Thus, the total emitter current will be equal to
the sum of emitter currents of T1 (Iem1) and T2 (Iem2).

Thus, emitter current can be driven as

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Thus, the emitter current remains constant independent of the hfe value of transistors T1 and
T2. If resistances connected to the collector terminals of T1 & T2 are equal, then their
collector voltages are also equal.

Applications
There are numerous differential amplifier applications in practical circuits, signal
amplification applications, controlling of motors & servo motors, input stage emitter-coupled
logic, switch, and so on are common applications of the differential amplifier circuit.

Comparison
Push-pull and differential amplifiers are both widely used configurations in electronic
circuits, but they serve different purposes and have distinct characteristics. Here’s a
comparison of the two:
Feature Push-Pull Amplifier Differential Amplifier
Purpose Used primarily for power Used for amplifying the difference
amplification and reducing distortion. between two input signals.
Configuration Typically has two complementary Uses two identical transistors with
transistors (NPN and PNP) working inputs applied to each base.
in opposite phases.
Input Single-ended input; the signal is split Dual inputs; amplifies the
and fed in opposite phases to each difference between two signals.
transistor.
Output Produces a larger, clean output signal, Produces an output proportional to
often with no DC offset. the voltage difference between the
inputs.
Phase Operates in a way that one transistor Both transistors work
Relationship conducts during the positive half and simultaneously, with output based
the other during the negative half of on input differential.
the input cycle.
Applications Used in audio amplifiers, power Used in operational amplifiers,
stages, and output stages of amplifiers sensor signal conditioning, and
for high efficiency and reduced instrumentation amplifiers for
distortion. high precision.
Distortion Reduces even-order harmonics, Minimizes common-mode noise,
especially second-order distortion, but not primarily intended to
due to symmetry in operation. reduce distortion.
Efficiency Generally high, especially in Class B Moderate efficiency, as it is
or AB configurations. typically used in low-power
applications.
Power Suitable for high-power applications. Mostly used in low-power
Handling applications where signal integrity
is crucial.

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