SUBJECT: SOCIOLOGY Std 11(ISC)

CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 2024-2025

Textbook: Principles of Sociology with an Introduction to Sociological Thought-C N Shankar Rao

(7th Edition)
Outline:
• Importance of research methodology in Sociology and Anthropology. Definition and
importance of social research.
• Methods of Sociology and Anthropology –
o Comparative method,
o Statistical method,
o Field work and case study method,
o Historical method and
o Scientific method (formulation of the problem, observation, classification, hypothesis,
verification, and prediction).
• Tools of data collection (primary and secondary): A brief idea of research tools used –
Definition, merits and demerits
o Questionnaire,
o Interview
o Observation and
o Documentary Research

A. Social Research: Meaning and Definition Page 46

Not only in the field of physical science but also in the realm of social sciences, researches are
taking place. The youngest of the social sciences, that is sociology is also doing a lot of research
work. “Sociological research is highly interesting and exciting. Research in sociology is really a
kind of systematic detective work. It faces innumerable puzzles and suspicions, withstands
disappointments and discouragements, challenges blind faith and hearsays and finally becomes
successful in unraveling the mystery that clouds the truth.”
Research today has become a part of sociology. Research in sociology is where the real action takes
place. In fact, there are two sides to the sociological enterprise: theory and research. Both are
essential, and each depends on the other. Facts without theory are utterly meaningless. Theories
without facts are unproved speculations of little use to anybody, because there is no way to tell
whether they are correct. Theory and research thus go together. A theory inspires research that can
be used to verify or disprove it, and the findings of research are used to confirm, reject or modify the
theory, or even to provide the basis of new theories. This process recurs endlessly.

Definition of Social Research (Any one)

1. According to Pauline V. Young, “Social research is a Systematic method of exploring,
analyzing and conceptualizing social life in order to “extend, correct, or verify knowledge, whether
that knowledge aids in the construction of a theory or in the practice of an art.”

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2. Stating it still differently, social research seeks to find explanations to unexplained social
phenomena to clarify the doubtful and correct them is conceived fact of social life.
3. Pauline V. Young has also said “Social research may be defined as a scientific undertaking
which, by means of logical and systematized techniques aims to (1) discover new facts or verify and
test old facts (2) Analyze their sequences interrelationships, and causal explanations (3) develop
new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human
behaviour”.
4. According to Wallace and Wallace, “Sociological research refers to the structural observation of
social behaviour”
Importance of Social Research
Research is carried on in the social field not just with academic interests. It has both academic and
non-academic purposes and importance.
Importance of research can be briefly stated here.
1. Research is essential to diffuse knowledge and to expand its horizon.
2. Research helps us to verify or disprove, confirm or reject, modify and
re-assert the existing theories and establish new ones.
3. Research provides practical clues, to undertake measures that lead to social improvement, social
change and social progress.
4. Research by probing into the perplexing problems of the day provides new insight regarding their
nature. Research helps us to know the nature and the magnitude of the problems.
5. Research has commercial importance also. Industries, business firms and commercial
establishments can get a lot of information and clues about their endeavors in society.
6. Research can provide all the required data and facts to the administrators to adopt and undertake
appropriate policies, plans and programmes.
7. Research has educational importance. It is mainly an intellectual activity. Information obtained
through research may have its educational importance.
8. Research motivates interdisciplinary studies. It stresses the interdependence of different sciences.
It thus strengthens the “interdisciplinary approach” which is emerging out these days.
9. Other uses and Importance
(i) Those working in the academic field can obtain a new degree known as Ph.D. [Doctor of
Philosophy] by successfully carrying out research as per the stipulated rules.
(ii) Those working in the research department attached to industries, other types of establishments
have made research their profession and obtain salary for their service. It provides job opportunities
for a few intellectuals.
(iii) For the philosophers and scientists research can be intellectually delighting and mentally
satisfying, and
(iv) Those who are in the field of literature, art, architecture, etc. can seek to establish new styles
and trends through research.

B. Methods of Sociology and Anthropology:

1. The Comparative Method Page 37
In order to tackle the problems of society effectively and to make fruitful discoveries sociology has
to employ precise and well-tested methods of investigation. The comparative method is one such

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method. This method is as old as Aristotle for it is known that he had made use of this method in his
study of political systems. But it became "the method par excellence of sociology” only in the 19th
century. Sociologists and social investigators like Comte, Durkheim, Tylor, J. G. Frazer, Weber,
Hobhouse, Wheeler, Ginsberg, Gouldner, G.P. Murdock, S.F. Nadel, S.M. Lipset and R. Bendix,
E.R. Leach, and others have not only used this method in their studies but also made it sufficiently
popular.
The comparative method refers to “the method of comparing different societies or groups within the
same society to show whether and why they are similar or different in certain respects". By such
comparisons of differences as well as similarities found in the ways of life of peoples of different
groups and societies, one can find clues to human social behaviour.
The comparative method is not specifically a sociological method but is a method quite known in
logic, and as such it is applicable to all the sciences. In the 18th century, philologists made use of
this method in their study of different languages. In the 19th century, the social investigators to find
out similarities in social institutions so as to trace their common origins used this method. Both
Montesquieu and Comte used and recommended this method in the 19th century to establish and
explain both differences and similarities between societies.
Throughout the 19th century there was a strong link between the use of the comparative method and
the evolutionist approach. Durkheim set out clearly the significance of this method in his “The Rules
of Sociological Method” according to him; the sociological explanation consists entirely in the
establishment of causal connections. In the case of natural sciences, the causal connections could be
more easily established because of the facility of experiment. Since such direct experiment are out
of question in sociology, we are compelled to use the method of indirect experiment i.e. comparative
method says Durkheim
Durkheim in his work "Division of Labour in Society” compared the legal systems of different
societies at the same time and at different levels of development. In that he used law as an index of
the moral character of society. By comparison “he tested his hypothesis that an increase in the
division of labour is accompanied by a change in the nature of social integration or solidarity”.
Further, Durkheim in his study of "Suicide” aimed to discover the social causes of suicide by
relating the rates of suicide in different social groups to characteristics of the groups. He showed
that “The suicide rates varied inversely with the degree of social cohesion and with the degree of
stability of moral norms”.
Tylor used this method in the study of institutions connected with the family among primitive
people and was able to show that the practice of mother-in-law avoidance was correlated with the
system of matrilocal residence.
Recently, S.M. Lipset and R. Bendix have compared “rates of social mobility in different industrial
societies to show that these rates are governed largely by the stage or degree of industrialisation.”
Thus, by employing this method it may be possible to explain the significance of a custom or
practice, though it varies from one society to another, by studying the motives behind it.
By adopting this method, it is quite possible to establish correlations between crime and
urbanisation, between family size and social mobility, between social class and educational
attainment, between urban living and divorce or delinquency rates, etc. Studies of this kind have
resulted in a number of generalizations.
It is true that the comparative method has its own limitations. Critics have pointed out that “what
appear superficially to be similar institutions may, in fact, be very different in the societies being
considered”. Further, “an institution detached from the context of the whole society in which
functions may easily be misunderstood”. These comments denote practical difficulties involved in
the application of the method. As Bottomore has suggested, these difficulties could be minimised by
limiting the range of comparisons to societies, which are broadly similar.

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In spite of its deficiencies, the comparative method has been widely used today in sociological
studies. E.A. Freeman claimed, “the establishment of the comparative method of study has been the
greatest intellectual achievement of our time.” As Durkheim said, in the absence of experimental
method comparative method is the only method available to the sociological disciplines. Due to the
success attained by employing this method in small-scale studies in particular societies, sociologists
are encouraged to make comparisons between societies. Such higher-level comparisons between
societies and nations are necessary to verify the conclusions of the small-scale studies.

2. The Statistical Method Page 39

From the 17th Century onwards, statistical methods have become essential in analysing vital
statistics concerning people or things. The term “statistics” may be used in two ways:
(i) to refer to the application of statistical methods to social or non-social problems, and
(ii) to refer to the actual numerical data collected in relation to these problems. The term 'social
statistics’ or ‘statistical method’ refers to the method that is used to measure so social phenomena
mathematically.
It may be regarded as “the method of collecting, analysing and interpreting numerical information
about social aggregates”. As Bogardus has pointed out “Social statistics is mathematics applied to
human facts”. The statistical method is of great help in some cases to disclose the relationship
between different aspects of social phenomena. It also helps to arrive at generalisations regarding
their nature, occurrence, and meaning.
It is an important tool in research in the sense it can be effectively used in issues or problems, which
involve measurement or numerals. For example, this method can be very effectively used in studies
relating to rates of birth and death, divorce and marriage, crime and suicide. Useful information can
be obtained by the application of this method in studies pertaining to migration, economic
conditions, standard of living, human ecology, public opinion, and so on.
The statistical method reveals certain distinctive features when applied to the study of social
phenomena.
Firstly, collection of numerical information about social issues or problems cannot always be done
by direct observation. It must be done through questionnaires and surveys, which have their own
limitations.
Secondly, a social statistician is concerned with the problems of interviews also. In interviews some
respondents may refuse to provide the information which they have been asked for. If such
respondents are selected out of sampling, the problem of refusal becomes a significant deficiency in
the whole process.
Thirdly, social statisticians are often interested in the analysis of data, which can be ordered but not
measured. (Ex: the provision of medical facilities being classified into - good, fair, indifferent and
poor).
Sociologists like Comte, Prof. Giddings and others have emphasized the importance of this method
in sociological research. It is true that most of the data dealt with in sociology are qualitative and not
quantitative in nature. Still sociologists are struggling to reduce more and more if such data to
quantitative terms so that they can be studied statistically

3. Field Work and Case Study Method

Field Work
Sociologist Robert E. Park once wrote that fieldwork requires getting your hands and the seats of
your pants dirty. Also known as Ethnography or participant observation.

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While field research often begins in a specific setting, the study’s purpose is to observe specific
behaviours in that setting. Field work is optimal for observing how people behave. It is less useful,
however, for understanding why they behave that way. You cannot really narrow down cause and
effect when there are so many variables floating around in a natural environment. Much of the data
gathered in field research is based not on cause and effect but on correlation. And while field
research looks for correlation, its small sample size does not allow for establishing a causal
relationship between two variables.
It requires one to leave the comfort of classrooms, libraries, and computer screens to try to
understand people and their everyday activities, in real time, in natural social settings.

4.The Case Study Method Page 39

The 'Case study' is a practice derived from legal studies. In legal studies a case refers to an event or
set of events involving legal acts. In sociology, the case study method is a holistic treatment of a
subject. This method provides for the qualitative analysis of the issues. This is an in-depth study of
an individual or a situation or an organisation or an institution or a family or a group or a small
community.
The idea behind this method is that any case being studied is representative of many similar cases (if
not all) and, hence, will make generalizations possible. This method involves the minute study of all
the information and data collected regarding the object or case under study. Hence Burgess called
this method “social microscope.”
The case study may make use of various techniques such as interviews, questionnaires, schedules,
life histories, relevant documents of all kinds and also ‘participant observation’ for collecting
information about the case under study.
This method is essential in obtaining an insight into the problems of the alcoholic, drug addict, the
criminal, the juvenile delinquent, the social deviant, or the immigrant. Thomas and Znaniecki’s
“Polish Peasant in Europe and America” – (1922) is a classic work in the field of case study.
This method is often criticized by social statisticians. According to them, this method cannot
provide methodologically precise results of a general nature. Still, it could be used as a valuable
preliminary approach to discover the significant variables that speak of human behaviour. These
variables may lead to the formulation of hypotheses, which could be tasted by making references to
a large number of instances.

5. The Historical Method Page 38

The historical method refers to, "a study of events, processes, and institutions of past civilizations,
for the purpose of finding the origins or antecedents of contemporary social life and thus
understanding its nature and working.”
This method is based on the idea that our present forms of social life, our customs and traditions,
beliefs and values, and our ways of living as such have their roots in the past and that one can best
explain them by tracing them back to their origins. The utility and wide acceptance of the historical
method has resulted in one of the fields of sociology known as "historical sociology.” “Historical
sociology studies societies of the remote as well as of recent past to discover origins of, and find
explanations for, our present ways of life.”
In a way, all types of sociological research are historical for the Sociologists make use of the records
relating to the things that have happened or have been observed. But generally, the term “historical
sociology” is applied to the study of social facts, which are than fifty or so years old. It means all the
social facts relating to the 19th and early phase of 20th centuries are referred to as “historical.”

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In practice, “historical sociology is a particular kind of comparative study of social groups, their
compositions, their interrelationships and the social conditions which support or undermine them.”
The social anthropologist examines these things in contemporary simple societies. But the historical
sociologist examines them in the records of societies and cultures prior to his own.
The historical approach has taken two main forms.
(i) The first one is highly influenced by the biological theory of evolution, and
(ii) the second one by the economic interpretation.

(i) In the first approach concentration is made on the issues such as the origins, development and
transformation of societies and social institutions. This is concerned with the entire span of human
history. Comte, Spencer and Hobhouse used this approach to study the development of the whole
society. But E. Westermarck and F. Oppenheimer followed this method to study the development of
institutions such as marriage and state in their famous studies of “History of human marriage” and
“The State” respectively.
(ii) The second approach was characteristic of the works of Max Weber and his followers. Weber
strongly criticised Marx materialist conception of history and his “formula for the causal
explanation of historical reality”. He advocated the idea of economic interpretation of history.
Weber applied this approach in his studies of the origins of capitalism, the development of modern
bureaucracy and the economic influence of the world religions.

6. Scientific Method Page 40

The basis of study of any science or discipline is its methods. Sciences in general and natural
science in particular follow the scientific method. The scientific method has added much to their
credibility and objectivity. The scientific method consists of certain steps or procedures which are to
be followed precisely. A glance of these steps or procedures is given below:
(1) Formulation of the Problem. A problem is a gap in knowledge - something not understood. It
may be simple or complex. But this problem is to be defined properly. Otherwise, we may miss the
direction and efforts may be wasted. A casual observation and an idea regarding the existing amount
of knowledge on that particular issue may help one to define the problem properly.
(2) Formulation of Hypothesis. When the problem to be tackled is known we must have some idea
to the new aspects that are likely to be discovered. These primary ideas, which may guide us in our
study, may be termed as hypothesis. It is a tentative explanation of a phenomenon. It is a provisional
supposition, which is not yet proved but is anticipated to be correct.
(3) Observation and Collection of Data. The formulated hypothesis will have to be tested. This
requires observation and collection of facts. In social investigations we collect data by interview,
schedules, questionnaires, field observations, etc. The methods of collecting data depend upon the
nature of the research and the resources at our disposal.
(4) Analysis and Synthesis. After the data has been collected, it must be processed and analyzed in
order to draw proper inferences. This requires the classification of the data. Classification means
arranging the data in different groups or classes according to their similarities or dissimilarities.
(5) Generalization. After the data has been collected, processed, and analyzed, we have to draw
broad inferences or conclusions or generalizations.
(6) Formulation of Theory and Law. When a scientist has succeeded in describing and explaining
the relation between various facts, he has formulated a theory. When these facts have been tested
and accepted by the scientist as invariably true the theory may be properly regarded as a law.
Hypothesis-Theory-and Law. At this point it is necessary to distinguish between hypothesis, theory
and law. A hypothesis is generally formulated before the facts are observed properly. It deals with a

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comparatively narrower range of facts. A theory is a tested hypothesis and deals with a wide range
of facts. Theory is sometimes regarded as an elaborate hypothesis. When a theory is well established
and found to be correct invariably, it is regarded as a law.

C. Tools of Data Collection – Primary and Secondary (Definition, merits, demerits)

o Questionnaire
o Interview
o Observation and
o Documentary Research

Primary data is a term used for data collected directly from firsthand sources.
Secondary data is the data that is available because it has already been collected and analyses by
someone else.

1. Questionnaire Page 52
A questionnaire is a tool for data collection. It consists of a number of questions printed or typed in
a definite order on a form or a set of forms. It is administered to a respondent either personally or
through mail. The respondents answer the questions on their own without being aided.

Definition of Questionnaire (Any one)

1. “A questionnaire is a means of gathering information by having the respondents fill in answers to
printed questions” —Wallace and Wallace
2.“Fundamentally, the questionnaire is a set of stimuli to which literate people are exposed in order
to observe their verbal behaviour under these stimuli.” -Lundberg.
3. Good and Hatte define questionnaire as a device for securing answers to questions using a form,
which the respondent fills on their own.

Merits: Page 54
1. Relatively economical and inexpensive
2. Saves time - A large number of people can be approached through mailed questionnaires
3. Ensures anonymity, so the respondent feels free to express his/her views
4. More suitable for eliciting information regarding personal or private affairs (marital relations,
etc.)
5. Do not put much pressure on the respondent’s emotionality.
6. The collected answers can be processed and analyzed in a simple and faster manner.

Demerits:
1. Cannot be administered in the case of illiterate and uneducated people
2. Not suitable when a spontaneous answer is very much required
3. No way of checking misinterpretations and unintelligible replies
4. Proportions of returns, especially of mailed questionnaires, can be very low.

2. Interview Page 55

Literally, interview means mutual view of each other. It is called conversation with a purpose. The
main objective of an interviewer is to know the mind, opinion, attitudes and feelings of an
interviewee with regard to a particular object or situation through the asking of pertinent questions

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and engaging of conversation. Apart from verbal cues (tone, rate of speaking, etc.) much can be
determined from nonverbal expressions (tensing of a muscle, flick of an eye, etc.)

Definition: (Any one)

1. Young: Interviewing is an interactional process.
2. Gopal: The interview is a conversation with a purpose and therefore is more than a mere oral
exchange of information.

Merits: Page 58
1. Possible to secure relatively dependable information about issues, people and events.
2. May help to obtain in-depth knowledge about social issues
3. Possible to secure information about the past, present and future in a somewhat detailed
manner
4. The active and intelligent role of the interviewer can add to the high rate of response
5. The interview method can be used to obtain information from all types of persons

Demerits:
• Incapability of the interviewer
• Prejudices developed knowingly or unknowingly by the interviewer may completely mislead
the outcome of the interview
• Failure to select a ‘right person’
• Confusion may be created in case the interviewer and interviewee have divergent, often
antagonistic views
• Interviewing is a difficult skill and it needs intense, time consuming training
• Interview by itself is incomplete and needs to be supplemented with other methods such as
observation
• There is no guarantee that the interviewee gives honest opinions on issues referred to him
• When people are asked to report their own behavior, they may tend to merely mention the
formal rules of social behavior rather than recount exactly how they actually behaved.

3. Observation Page 48

It is one of the principal techniques of research in social sciences.

Definition (Any one)

1. P.G. Gisbert: “Observation consists in the application of our mind and its cognitive powers to
the phenomena which we are studying”.
2. Wallace and Wallace: “In an observational study the researcher actually witnesses social
behavior in its natural setting.”

Merits: Page 51
1. They come to grips with real life situations and so offer insights that years of experimenting
and surveying might overlook
2. Research is accomplished by directly observing subject’s behaviour
3. Observation can be done in a natural setting and provide for the study to be done over a period
and not at one point (as a survey usually does)
4. The involvement of the researcher in the lives of the people he is studying gives him deeper
insight into the behaviour of the people.

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Demerits:
1. Data collected from observation cannot always be quantified
2. It is very much limited by the duration of the event. Events do not wait for the convenience of
the observer.
3. Cannot always be used to study the private and secret behaviour of individuals.
4. There is scope for the danger of observer bias, especially hidden bias.

4. Documentary Research

Definition:

1. Documentary research involves examining texts and documents as evidence of human

behavior.
2. Documentary research is synonymous with archival research and addresses issues related to
the role and use of documents and public and private records. In another sense, documentary
research produces artifacts and material culture through artistic representation, moving and still
imagery, and sound recordings.
3. Document analysis is a form of qualitative research in which documents are interpreted by the
researcher to give voice and meaning around an assessment topic (Bowen, 2009)

With the use of primary and secondary materials, the researcher must assess and analyze the
documents themselves before extracting content. Appraising documents typically includes four
criteria: authenticity, credibility, representativeness, and meaning.

Merits:
1. One knows the chronological sequence of events better than what one can glean from
interviews and field work.
2. You have greater control over how the research is collected.
3. documents are manageable and practical resources. Documents are commonplace and come in
a variety of forms, making documents a very accessible and reliable source of data. Obtaining and
analyzing documents is often far more cost efficient and time efficient than conducting your own
research or experiments (Bowen, 2009). Also, documents are stable, “non-reactive” data sources,
meaning that they can be read and reviewed multiple times and remain unchanged by the
researcher’s influence or research process.

Demerits:
1. Possibly out of date
2. Not as informative (focuses on one thing)
3. No control over how the information has been collected
4. Creates more questions. Documents are not created with data research agendas and therefore
require some investigative skills.
5. Legal issues Eg. if the source that you have got your data from some source that has not
obtained them legally.
6. Some documents may only provide a small amount of useful data or sometimes none. Other
documents may be incomplete, or their data may be inaccurate or inconsistent. Sometimes there are
gaps or sparseness of documents, leading to more searching or reliance on additional documents
then planned
7. Some documents may not be available or easily accessible.

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