MODULE - 1

OSCILLTIONS AND WAVES

Nature manifests itself in the form of matter and radiation, therefore concepts of matter
(particle) and radiation (wave) are very basic and fundamental in Physics.

It is very essential to transport energy from one place to another and there are two ways
transporting energy.

1] Energy can be transported in the form of kinetic energy of matter in motion. Ex: A bullet
fired from a gun carries kinetic energy and transfers it to the target
2] Energy can be transported from one point to another by a wave without the actual
movement of particles in the medium, i.e called as wave motion. Ex: Radiation received
from Sun is wave motion.

Depending on the medium of propagation, waves can be classified as

1] Mechanical waves
2] Non mechanical waves ( electromagnetic waves)

A wave can be defined as “ The transmission of energy from one place to another through a
medium without the actual translation of the medium in the direction of the energy flow”

A wave is produced by the periodic disturbance/periodic oscillations at a point in the given

medium.

Ex: Sound waves are produced because of the vibration of particles of the medium or the
body. Sound propagates in the form of waves . These waves carry mechanical energy with
them which is known as sound energy. (Ex: When you strike a bell, the metal vibrates, creating
a sound wave)
Ex: Electromagnetic wave, is a form of energy emitted by moving charged particles.
Electromagnetic waves consist of both electric and magnetic field waves. These waves
oscillate in perpendicular planes with respect to each other, and are in phase. (Ex: oscillations
of charge flowing back and forth in an electrical circuit, vibrations of electrons in an atom
generating light waves etc.)

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 1

 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)
[QUESTION : Define simple harmonic motion and explain the characteristics]

Definition of SHM: A simple harmonic motion is defined as “The motion in which the restoring
force acting on the body is directly proportional to its displacement from the mean position”

Characteristics:
1. The motion is periodic
2. When the body displaced from its mean position, the restoring force acts on the body
which tends to bring back the body to its mean position
3. The restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement of the body from its mean
position.
Displacement: the distance of the particle measured along the path of the motion from its
mean position at a given instant is called as displacement given as 𝒙 = 𝑨 𝑺𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕 + ∅)
Where ‘x’ is displacement, ‘A’ is amplitude, ‘𝜔’ is angular frequency, ‘t’ is time constant and ‘∅’
is initial phase

Velocity: velocity is defined as distance travelled by unit time, given as

𝑑𝑥
𝒗=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑣= [𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + ∅)]
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = 𝜔𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

Acceleration: acceleration is given by

𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑎= 𝜔𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝑑𝑡
𝑎 = − 𝜔2 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

Time period: time taken for one complete oscillation is called as period, which is given
2𝜋
by 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑇

𝟐𝝅
Therefore 𝑻=
𝝎

Frequency: the number of oscillations made by the body in one second, given by
𝟏
𝒇=
𝑻

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 DIFFRENTIAL EQUATION OF SHM
[QUESTION: Derive expression for differential equation for SHM and mention its
solution]

Consider a block of mass ‘m’ attached to the one end of the spring. When the mass is pulled
and left to it, it oscillates along its equilibrium position. Mass is said to be performing simple
harmonic motion when the restoring force (F) is proportional to the displacement (x).
i.e restoring force ∝ − 𝑥
{Negative sign indicates the restoring force is directed opposite to the displacement}
F ∝ −x
F = − kx ------------------------------------------ (1)

Here K is the proportionality constant known as spring constant. It represents the amount of
restoring force produced per unit elongation and is a relative measure of stiffness of the
material.
According Newton’s II law of motion, the restoring force produces acceleration given by
F = ma --------------------- (2)
d2 x
where ‘a’ is acceleration given by a= dt2
from equation 1 & 2
ma = − kx
d2 x
m = − kx
dt2
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒌
+ 𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒎
k
Putting = ω2 , the above equation becomes
m
𝒅𝟐 𝒙
+ 𝛚𝟐 𝒙 = 𝟎 ----------------(3) This is the general differential equation for SHM
𝒅𝒕𝟐

𝒌
Here ‘ω’ is the angular frequency given by 𝛚 = √ radian/sec
𝒎

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 3

 𝟐𝝅
Therefor time period ‘T’ is given by 𝑻=
𝝎
𝟐𝝅
T =
√𝒌
𝒎

𝒎
Therefore T = 𝟐𝝅√ seconds
𝒌
The general solution for equation (3) is given by
𝐱 = 𝐀𝐞𝐢𝛚𝐭 + 𝐁𝐞−𝐢𝛚𝐭
Where ‘A’ and ‘B’ are constants to be determined by initial conditions

MECHANICAL SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR:

MASS SUSPENDED TO A SPRING (VERTICAL OSCILLATIONS)
[QUESTION: Derive the expression for period of oscillation for a mass spring oscillator]

For a light spiral spring within elastic limit, the tension of the spring is proportional to
the extension of the spring beyond its length, i.e it obeys Hook’s law

Figure shows a spring of length ‘L’ suspended freely from a support at the position ‘A’ if
a mass ‘m’ is attached to its free end ‘B’ then the spring stretches downward and it length
will increase say by 𝑙 = 𝐵𝐶.
According to Hook’s law, the force exerted by the spring on the mass is directly
proportional to its displacement
if ‘𝑙’ is the displacement then 𝐹𝛼𝑙
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑙
Where ‘k’ is called as proportionality constant which depends on the material, size of the
spring balance, the tension ‘T’ on the spring. ‘k’ is also called as spring constant or
stiffness factor or force constant.

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 4

But W.K.T 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔

Therefore the tension on the spring is equal to

𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘𝑙 ------------------------- (1)
Now if the mass is further displaced to the position ‘D’ through a small distance ‘x’ then
the tension in the spring is 𝑇 ′ given by
𝑇 ′ = 𝑘 (𝑙 + 𝑥) ----------------------- (2)
Therefore the total force acting on the mass is given by
𝐹 = (𝑇 − 𝑇 ′ )
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑙 − 𝑘 (𝑙 + 𝑥)
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
The time period ‘T’ is given by
2𝜋
𝑇=
𝜔

𝑘
We know that ω= √
𝑚
2𝜋
Therefore 𝑇 =
𝑘
√
𝑚

𝑚
Or 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √
𝑘

From equation (1) we have 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘𝑙

𝑚𝑔
Or 𝑘 =
𝑙
𝑚
Therefore 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √𝑚𝑔
𝑙

𝒍
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 √
𝒈
The time period of spring with large ‘k’ (i.e strong spring) will be less and is directly proportional
to mass suspended.

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 5

 EXPRESSION FOR SPRING CONSTANT FOR SERIES COMBINATION
[QUESTION: Derive the expression for equivalent force constant for springs in a series
combination. What is the expression for period of its oscillation]

Consider a load ‘m’ suspended through two springs 𝑆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2 with spring constants k1 and k2
in series combination. Both the springs experience same pull (i.e same force) by the mass ‘m’.
𝑆1 extends by 𝑥1 and 𝑆2 extends by 𝑥2 . Thus the mass m comes down showing a total
extension 𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2

Therefore total extension is given by

𝐹
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 {but W.T.T 𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = − }
𝐾

𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
− = − −
𝑘 𝑘1 𝑘2

Mass ‘m’
If 𝐾𝑠 is the equivalent spring constant for the series
combination of the springs, then we have
↓
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
F = mg − = −( + )
𝑘𝑠 𝑘1 𝑘2

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒌𝒔 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐
If there are multi spring connected in series then

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + + − − − −
𝒌𝒔 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟐

If a mass ‘m’ is attached to the bottom of such a series combination of springs and set for
oscillations, then its period of oscillation is given by
𝒎
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 √𝒌
𝒔

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 6

EXPRESSION OF SPRING CONSTANT FOR PARALLEL COMBINATION
[QUESTION: Derive the expression for equivalent force constant for springs in parallel
combination. What is the expression for period of its oscillation]

Consider a load suspended through two springs with spring

constants k1 and k2 in parallel combination.
If 𝐹𝑃 is restoring force shared by each spring then

Mass ‘m’ 𝐹𝑃 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 {but W.T.T 𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑥 }

−𝐾𝑃 𝑥 = − 𝑘1 𝑥 − 𝑘2 𝑥

If 𝐾𝑃 is the equivalent stiffness factor of the parallel combination of the springs, then we
have
−𝐾𝑃 𝑥 = − 𝑥 (𝑘1 − 𝑘2 )

𝑲𝑷 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐
If there are multi spring connected in parallel then

𝑲𝑷 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 + 𝒌𝟑 + − − −

If a mass ‘m’ is attached to the bottom of such a parallel combination of springs and set
for oscillations, then its period of oscillation is given by
𝒎
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 √𝒌
𝑷

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 7

 COMPLEX NOTATION
Complex numbers are a convenient tool to mathematically analyze sinusoidal
functions. It can be used to represent amplitude and phase of a periodically varying
function.

Imaginary
y
z

x Real

A complex number z has the form 𝒁 = 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚

where i = √−1 which is termed as imaginary. Here x is said to be the real part and y is
imaginary.

POLAR COORDINATES:

Imaginary
𝒓
𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜃
𝜃
Real
𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜃

Polar coordinates are represented by ‘r’ and ‘𝜃’ where ‘r’ is the magnitude of ‘z’
Here 𝑍 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑍 = 𝑟 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
From Eulers formula, we can write 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

Therefore 𝒁 = 𝒓𝒆𝒊𝜽

Phasors are Time Independent complex quantities used to represent periodically varying
parameters.
Ex: Alternating current is represented as 𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
Alternating voltage is represented as 𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
Here ‘I’ and ‘V’ are phasors
A periodic force is expressed in phasor form as
𝐹 = 𝐹0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 here ‘F’ is phasor

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 8

 FREE OSCILLATIONS

The oscillations are said to be free oscillations when there are no external forces. The
object oscillates with natural frequency. If there is no resistance offered to the motion of
the oscillations by any sources such as air, friction or internal forces, then the body keeps
on oscillating indefinitely and such oscillations are called free oscillations.

DAMPED OSCILLATIONS
In a damped harmonic oscillator, the amplitude decreases gradually, this is called as
damping. Damping may be due to friction or viscous force. Ex. A pendulum immersed in
liquid (water) exhibits damped oscillations.
EXPRESSION FOR THE PERIOD AND AMPLITUDE OF DAMPED
HARMONIC MOTION
[QUESTION : What are damped vibrations/oscillations? Give the theory of damped
vibrations/oscillations, and find the condition of heavy, critical and light damping]

Oscillating mass in a liquid.

The above figure shows a spring with attached mass at one end is immersed in water
medium. When a body oscillations in a medium, there are two forces acting on it
[1] The restoring force in opposite direction proportional to the displacement ‘x’
which tends to bring back the body to its initial positions and is given by
𝐹 ∝ −𝑥
𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑥 ----------------------------- (1)
Where ‘𝑘’ is proportionality constant or force constant/spring constant/stiffness factor.

[2] The resistive force proportional to the velocity but oppositely directed given by
𝐹 ∝ −𝑣
Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 9
 𝐹 = − 𝑟𝑣
𝑑𝑥
Or 𝐹 = −𝑟 ----------------------------- (2)
𝑑𝑡
Where ‘𝑟’ is resistive force per unit velocity and is called as damping
constant. Negative sign indicates that, the forces are acting opposite to the
direction of the particle motion.
Therefore the net force acting on the oscillating body is given by
𝐹 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 + 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Therefore from equation (1) and (2)
𝑑𝑥
𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑟
𝑑𝑡
But we have force = mass x acceleration
𝑑2 𝑥
𝐹= 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 2
‘m’ is the mass of the oscillating body
Therefore the equation of motion of the particle is given by
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑟
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘 𝑟 𝑑𝑥
= − 𝑥−
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑚 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
Or + + 𝑥 =0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Or + 2𝑏 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0 ----------------------------- (3)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑟 𝑘
Where 2b = and 𝜔2 = . The quantity ‘2b’ gives the resistive force per unit
𝑚 𝑚
mass per unit velocity and ‘b’ is called as damping coefficient.
Equation (3) is known as the differential equation of damped vibration or damped simple
harmonic motions (SHM)

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Finding solutions for the above equation (3)
Let 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 be a trial solution of the equation
Differentiating the above equation with respect to ‘t’
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 𝛼 --------------------- (*)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Or = 𝛼𝑥 -------------- (4) {becaz 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 }
𝑑𝑡
Differentiating equ (*) again w.r.t ‘t’
𝑑2𝑥
= 𝛼 (𝑒 𝛼𝑡 𝛼)
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2𝑥
2
= 𝛼 2 𝑒 𝛼𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
= 𝛼2 𝑥 -------- (5) {becaz 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 }
𝑑𝑡 2
substituting equation (4) and (5) in equ (3)
We have 𝛼2 𝑥 + 2𝑏𝛼𝑥 + 𝜔2 𝑥 =0
Or (𝛼 2 + 2𝑏𝛼 + 𝜔2 ) = 0 ( because 𝑥 ≠ 0)
The standard solution for the above quadratic equation is given by
2
𝛼 = −𝑏 ± √𝑏 − 𝜔2
Thus the general solution of the equation (3) is given by
2 2
(−𝑏 +√𝑏 − 𝜔2 ) 𝑡 (−𝑏 −√𝑏 − 𝜔2 ) 𝑡
𝑥 = 𝐴1 𝑒 + 𝐴2 𝑒

−𝒃𝒕 (√𝒃𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐 ) 𝒕 (− √𝒃𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐 ) 𝒕

𝒙= 𝒆 [𝑨𝟏 𝒆 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆 ] ------------------ (6)
Where 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 are two arbitrary constants to be determined.
Depending upon the relative values ‘𝑏 2 ’ and ‘𝜔2 ’ three different cases of damping
arises. They are as follows.
CASE 1: HEAVY DAMPING (OR) OVER DAMPING
Here 𝑏 2 > 𝜔2
This indicates the exponential decay of displacement with respect to time, i.e here the

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body after passing through its maximum displacement, simple comes back to equilibrium
position and rest there. It ceases to vibrate anymore. This type of motion is called as
heavy damped or over damped motion.
Ex: pendulum moving in a thick oil

CASE 2: CRITICAL DAMPING

Here 𝑏 2 = 𝜔2 , here the damping term effect is balanced by that of the stiffness term.
Here, the oscillations decreases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly to approach the
value of zero to attain the equilibrium position. such motion is called as critical damped
motion
Ex: Voltmeter, ammeter exhibits this type of motion in which pointer moves to correct
position and comes to rest without any oscillation.

1  heavy damped curve , 2  critical damped curve

CASE 3: LIGHT DAMPING (OR) UNDER DAMPING
Here 𝑏 2 < 𝜔2 , here the restoring force and resistive forces acting on the body are such
that, the body oscillates with diminishing amplitude as the time propagates and finally
comes to ta halt at the equilibrium position as shown in figure

Ex: Motion of pendulum in air, motion of the coil of ballistic galvanometer, electrical
oscillations of LCR circuit.

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 12

QUALITY FACTOR (Q)
The amplitude of damped oscillatory motion decays with time because of the dissipation
of energy. Quality factor is defined as the ′2𝜋’ times the ratio of the energy of the
oscillator to the energy lost per cycle. Hence quality factor is given by
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑦𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑄 = 2𝜋
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝐸
𝑄 = 2𝜋 ------------------------- (1)
𝑃𝑇
Where ‘P’ is power dissipated and ‘T’ is time period
𝐸
Here power dissipated is given by 𝑃= Where ‘𝜏’ is called as relaxation time
𝜏
𝐸
So equation (1) can be written as 𝑄 = 2𝜋 𝐸
𝑇
𝜏
2𝜋𝜏
𝑄=
𝑇
2𝜋
𝑸 = 𝝎𝝉 (because 𝜔 =
𝑇
)
It is clear that higher the value of ‘Q’ higher will be the relaxation time ‘ 𝜏’, i.e lower
damping.

FORCED OSCILLATIONS AND RESONANCE

When a body vibrates with a frequency other than its natural frequency under the action
of an external periodic force are called as forced oscillations.
Ex: Vibrations of a tuning fork when exposed to an external periodic force, vibrations of
a bridge under the influence of marching soldiers.
EXPRESSION FOR AMPLITUDE AND PHASE OF FORCED VIBRATIONS
[QUESTION : What are forced oscillations ? Obtain and expression for amplitude
and phase of the body undergoing forced vibrations]
When a body is forced to vibrate/oscillate by applying an external periodic force, the
forces acted upon it are given by
[1] The restoring force proportional to the displacement ‘x’ which tends to bring back

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 the body to its initial positions and is given by
𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑥 ----------------------------- (1)
Where ‘𝑘’ is proportionality constant or force constant/spring constant/stiffness factor.
[2] The retarding force or resistive force proportional to the velocity but oppositely
directed given by
𝐹 = − 𝑟𝑣
𝑑𝑥
Or 𝐹 = −𝑟 ----------------------------- (2)
𝑑𝑡
Where ‘𝑟’ is resistive force per unit velocity and is called as damping
constant. Negative sign indicates that, the forces are acting opposite to the
direction of the particle motion.
[3] External periodic force acting on the body is given by
𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡) ----------------------------- (3)
Where ‘p’ is the angular frequency of the external periodic force.
Therefore the net force acting on the vibrating body is given by
𝑭 = 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 + 𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 + 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

Therefore from equation (1) and (2) and (3) we have

𝑑𝑥
𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑟 + 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡) ---------------- (*)
𝑑𝑡
But we have force = mass x acceleration
𝑑2 𝑥
𝐹= 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 2
‘m’ is the mass of the oscillating body
Therefore the equation (*) of motion of the body is given by
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 = − 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑟 + 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝐹
Or + + 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑚
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐹
+ 2𝑏 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡) ------------------ (4)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑚

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 𝑟 𝑘
Where = 2b and = 𝜔2
𝑚 𝑚
The solution for the above differential equation (4) can be written as
𝑥 = 𝑎 sin (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) ------------------ (5)
Here ‘a’ and ‘𝛼’ are unknowns to be found
Differentiating the above equation (5) with respect to ‘t’ we have
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑎𝑝 cos (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) ------------------ (6)
𝑑𝑡
Differentiating again we get
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2
= 𝑎𝑝 [− sin (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) . 𝑝]
𝑑2 𝑥
= −𝑎 𝑝2 sin (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) ------------------ (7)
𝑑𝑡 2
Substituting equation (5), (6) and (7) in equation (4), we get
𝐹
−𝑎 𝑝2 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 2𝑏𝑎𝑝 cos(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝜔2 𝑎 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡)
𝑚
𝐹
−𝑎 𝑝2 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 2𝑏𝑎𝑝 cos(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝜔2 𝑎 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝛼]
𝑚
{Here 𝒔𝒊𝒏 [(𝒑𝒕 − 𝜶) + 𝜶] cab be considered as sin (A+B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB}
𝐹
−𝑎 𝑝2 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝜔2 𝑎 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 2𝑏𝑎𝑝 cos(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) = [𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡 −
𝑚
𝛼) cos 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) sin 𝛼]
𝐹
−𝑎 𝑝2 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝜔2 𝑎 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 2𝑏𝑎𝑝 cos(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) =( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡 −
𝑚
𝐹
𝛼) cos 𝛼 + ( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) sin 𝛼
𝑚
By equating coefficients of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) on both sides of the equation, we get,
𝐹
−𝑎 𝑝2 + 𝜔2 𝑎 = cos 𝛼
𝑚
𝐹
Or 𝜔 2 𝑎 − 𝑎 𝑝2 = cos 𝛼
𝑚
𝐹
𝑎 (𝜔2 − 𝑝2 ) = cos 𝛼 ------------------ (8)
𝑚
Similarly by equating coefficients of 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) on both sides of the equation, we get,
𝐹
2𝑏𝑎𝑝 = sin 𝛼 ------------------ (9)
𝑚

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TO DETERMINE AMPLITUDE OF FORCED VIBRATIONS
Squaring and adding equation (8) and (9)
We get
2 2 2
𝐹 2
[𝑎 (𝜔 − 𝑝 )] + (2𝑏𝑎𝑝)2 = ( ) + [𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼]
𝑚
𝐹 2
𝑎2 [(𝜔2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏 2 𝑝2 ] = (𝑚 ) {𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒛 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜶 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜶 = 1}

𝑭
( )
𝒎
𝒂 = ------------------ (10)
√[(𝝎𝟐 − 𝒑𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝒃𝟐 𝒑𝟐 ]
The above equation represents the amplitude of forced vibrations
Substituting equation (10) in eq. (5), we have
𝐹
(𝑚 )
𝑥= sin (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼)
√[(𝜔 2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏 2 𝑝2 ]
TO DETERMINE PHASE OF FORCED VIBRATIONS
Dividing equation (9) by (8), we get
𝐹
sin 𝛼 2𝑏𝑎𝑝
𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑎 (𝜔2 − 𝑝2 )
cos 𝛼
𝑚
𝟐𝒃𝒑
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 = ------------------ (11)
(𝝎𝟐 − 𝒑𝟐 )
The above equation represents the phase of forced vibrations

DEPENDENCE OF AMPLITUDE AND PHASE ON THE FREQUENCY OF THE

APPLIED FORCE
[QUESTION: Discuss the dependence of amplitude and phase of a forced vibrations on the
frequency of the applied external force]
Here 𝑝 is the frequency of the oscillating body due to applied external force. As 𝑝 can be
varied, we can have three different cases
Case 1: 𝒑 ≪ 𝝎
Therefore 𝜔2 − 𝑝2 ≈ 𝜔2 and as 𝑝2 is very small √4𝑏 2 𝑝2 ≈ 2𝑏𝑝 ≈ 0

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Therefore amplitude from equation (10) becomes
𝑭⁄
𝒎
𝒂=
𝝎𝟐
For 𝑷 ≪ 𝝎 , 𝜶 = 𝟎
Since 𝛼 = 0 displacement and force will be in same phase
Case 2: 𝒑 = 𝝎
Therefore 𝜔2 = 𝑝2
Therefore amplitude from equation (10) becomes
𝐹
(𝑚 )
𝑎 =
√4𝑏 2 𝑝2
𝑭
(𝒎)
Or 𝒂 =
𝟐𝒃𝒑
𝝅 𝜋
For 𝒑 = 𝝎 , Phase 𝜶 = This indicates that, the displacement ha a phase lag of
𝟐 2

with respect to the phase of the applied force.

Case 3: 𝒑 ≫ 𝝎
Therefore (𝜔2 − 𝑝2 )2 ≈ (𝑝2 )2
Therefore amplitude from equation (10) becomes
𝐹
(𝑚 )
𝑎 =
√4𝑏 2 𝑝2 + [( 𝑝2 )2 ]
Here as 𝑝 keeps increasing, the damping factor b becomes very small
Therefore 4𝑏 2 𝑝2 ≪ 𝑝4
Therefore amplitude becomes
𝐹
(𝑚 )
𝑎 =
√𝑝4
𝐹
(𝑚 )
𝑎 =
𝑝2

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 17

Here the phase 𝛼 = −𝜋, Here as 𝑝 becomes larger, the displacement develops a
phase lag that approaches the value of 𝜋 with respect to the phase of the applied force.

RESONANCE
[QUESTION: Define resonance with few examples ? discuss the condition for
resonance and hence write a short note on significance /sharpness of resonance ]
The phenomenon of making a body oscillate with its natural frequency under the
influence of the external frequency of the periodic force is called as resonance.
Examples of resonance :
 Tuning of musical instruments
 Helmholtz resonator
 The vibrations caused by an exited tuning fork in an another identical tuning fork.
 Tuning of a radio transistor
The frequency at which the amplitude of the forced oscillations becomes maximum is
the condition for resonance.
For forced vibrations, we know that the amplitude is given by
𝐹
(𝑚)
𝑎 =
√[(𝜔 2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏 2 𝑝2 ]

At resonance 𝒑 = 𝝎
Therefore 𝜔2 − 𝑝2 = 0
Therefore amplitude from equation (10) becomes
𝐹
(𝑚 )
𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
√4𝑏2 𝑝2
𝑭
( )
𝒎
Or 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝟐𝒃𝒑
Therefore the sharpness of resonance depends inversely on ‘ 𝒃’ where ‘𝒃’ is the damping
factor.

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 Significance and effect of damping on the amplitude of forced oscillations
Figure shows the response of the amplitude to the changes in damping. Here we can note
that the curves are flat for larger values of b ( i.e b=3, b=2) and hence resonance is also
flat. The curves for smaller values of b (i.e at b = 1) exhibits the pronounced and a sharp
peak hence it is referred as sharp resonance. But the curve which is in dotted line shows
that the value of amplitude is infinity at b =0, which is a special case which never exits in
reality.

Sharpness of resonance
𝑷=𝝎

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 HELMHOLTZ RESONATOR (EXAMPLE OF MECHANICAL RESONANCE)
[QUESTION: Write a short note on Helmholtz resonator]

Helmholtz resonator is a cavity in which, a stream of air is set to vibrate by flowing in

and out of it through an entry point at ‘A’. It is used to analyse the quality of musical
notes. It is a hollow cavity with two narrow opened ends at the point ‘A’ and ‘’B. The
end ‘B’ is held near the ear with end ‘A’ open for the entry of the air carrying musical
note. The air streams in and out of ‘A’ vibrates through ‘A’. The air enclosed in such a
hollow cavity will have definite value for its natural frequency ‘𝜔’. When the frequency
of the incoming air is same as the frequency of the air inside the cavity, amplitude
becomes maximum and the sound is heard, thus the resonating cavity resonates for the
note of that particular frequency.
It can be shown that, the square of the natural frequency of oscillation is inversely
proportional to the volume of the resonating cavity ‘V’
1
i.e 𝜔2 ∝
𝑉
𝐾
𝜔2 =
𝑉
Where ‘K’ is proportionality constant

𝝎𝟐 𝑽 = 𝑲

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 SHOCK WAVES
[QUESTION: Define mach number and distinguish between acoustic, ultrasonic,
subsonic and supersonic waves]

Mach Number : it is defined as the ratio of the speed of the object to the speed of sound
in the given medium
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
Mach Number =
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎
𝒗
Mach Number =
𝒂

DISTINCTION BETWEEN
Acoustic, ultrasonic, subsonic, transonic, supersonic and hypersonic waves
Acoustic waves: They are simply sound waves move with a speed of 333 m/s,
frequency within 20 KHz and have small amplitude

Ultrasonic Waves : They are pressure waves moves with the velocity of sound, but their
frequency is > 20 KHz.
Subsonic waves : (Mechanical waves) For a moving object, if its speed is less than the
speed of sound, then they have subsonic waves.
All subsonic waves have Mach Number < 1
Egs : Almost all vehicles like motor cars, trains, flights, flying birds moves with subsonic
speeds

As shown in figure, for a body moving with subsonic speed, the sound emitted by it
moves ahead of the body as it is faster than the body.

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 Supersonic Shock Waves : For a moving object, if its speed is greater than the speed of
the sound, then they are called as supersonic shock waves. Amplitude of supersonic
waves is high and it affects the medium in which it is travelling
The Mach Number for such objects is > 1
As shown in the figure, when the body moves with supersonic speed it moves ahead of
its own sound waves as travels faster than sound waves.
Egs : fighter planes fly with the speed of supersonic waves

Transonic waves : Here the speed range of the body overlaps on the subsonic and
supersonic ranges. Therefore the transonic range for speeds 0.8 < M <1.2, hence there
will be overlapping of some of the characteristics of both the subsonic and supersonic
speeds.
Hypersonic waves : a special class of waves called hypersonic waves, they travel with
the speeds for which mach number > 5. An hypersonic flow is accompanied by a shock
layer in its front. Here also there is overlapping area between supersonic and hypersonic
flow.

DESCRIPTION OF A SHOCK WAVE AND ITS PROPERTIES

[QUESTION: what are shock waves, mention few properties of a shock wave]
Any object that propagates at supersonic speeds, it gives rise to a shock wave.
 Shock waves can be produced by a sudden dissipation of mechanical energy in a
small space.
 Shock waves are characterized by sudden increase in pressure, temperature and
density of the gas through which it propagates.
 In nature shock waves are produced during earth quakes and when lighting strikes
Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 22
  Strong shock waves posses higher values of mach number Egs : Nuclear Explosion
 Weak shock waves possess low values of mach number Egs : Busting of an
automobile tyre.
 They always travel in the medium with mach number exceeding 1.
 Shock waves obey the laws of fluid dynamics.
 They increase the entropy of the medium they travel

CONTROL VOLUME
[QUESTION: Explain control volume]

Shock waves are analyzed with a model called control volume. It is the one dimensional
confinement in the medium with two surfaces. One on the pre-shock side and the other
one on the post- shock side. Their inter separation is very small. On the pre shock side
density, flow velocity , internal energy, temperature, specific enthalpy and pressure are
respectively 𝜌1 , 𝑈1 , 𝑇1 , ℎ1 and 𝑃1 and on the post – shock side they are 𝜌2 , 𝑈2 , 𝑇2 , ℎ2
and 𝑃2 respectively.
It is assumed that, within this volume, the heat energy is constant. The equations of mass,
momentum and energy are the governing equations for the control volume.

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 23

 BASIC CONSERVATIONAL LAWS OF MASS, MOMENTUM AND ENERGY
[QUESTION : Explain the conservational laws of mass, momentum and energy of a
shock wave]
Law of conservation of mass : it states that “ the total mass of any isolated system
remains unchanged and is independent of any chemical or physical changes that could
occur within the system”
The law of conservation of mass is given by

𝝆𝟏 𝑼𝟏 = 𝝆𝟐 𝑼𝟐

Where 𝝆𝟏 and 𝝆𝟐 are the initial and final values of density 𝑈1 and 𝑈2 are the velocities
before and after the creation of shock wave

Law of conservation of momentum : “ It states that, when two objects collide in an

isolated system, the total momentum of the two object before collision = total momentum
of the two objects after collision”

The law of conservation of momentum is given by

𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝟏 𝑼𝟐𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝟐 𝑼𝟐𝟐

Where 𝑷𝟏 and 𝑷𝟐 are the pressure before and after the creation of shock wave in shock
tube.

Law of conservation of energy : “It states that, the total energy of a closed system
remains constant and is independent of any changes occurring within the system”

The law of conservation of energy is given by

𝑼𝟐𝟏 𝑼𝟐𝟐
𝒉𝟏 + = 𝒉𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟐
Where 𝒉𝟏 and 𝒉𝟐 are the heat of enthalpy before and after the creation of shock wave in
shock tube

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 24

 REDDY SHOCK TUBE EXPERIMENT
[QUESTION: Explain the construction and working of Reddy shock tube
experiment]

CRO

Reddy shock tube consists of a cylindrical stainless steel tube of about 30mm diameter
and of length 1m. The tube is divided into two sections each of length 50cm.one is called
as driver tube and the other one is called as driven tube. These two tubes are separated by
a 0.1mm thick diaphragm ( the diaphragm may be Aluminium or paper). The Reddy tube
has a piston fitted to the driver section whereas the driven section end is closed. A digital
pressure guage is mounted in the driver section. Two piezoelectric sensors 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are
mounted 70mm apart towards the closed end of the shock tube. The driver section is
filled with a gas (helium gas) at relatively high pressure due to the compressing action of
the piston. Similarly driven section is filled with Argon gas.
WORKING : When the piston is pushed hard into the driver tube, the driver gas
compresses and the diaphragm ruptures and the driver gas (helium) rushes into the driven
section and pushes the driven gas (Argon) towards the downstream end. This action
generates a shock wave that travels through the length of the driven section. The shock
wave instantly raises the temperature and pressure of the driven gas. This propagating
shock wave gets reflected from the downstream end. After reflection, the driven gas
further undergoes compression boosting its temperature and pressure to still higher
values. The pressure raise caused by primary shock wave and also the reflected shock
wave are sensed as signals by the sensors 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 respectively. These signals are
recorded in a digital cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO). From these recording of the CRO,

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the shock arrival times are found out by the associated time base calculations. Using this
data, mach number, pressure and temperature can be calculated.

APPLICATIONS OF SHOCK WAVES

[QUESTION : Explain the applications of shock waves]
1] Cell information: DNA can be pushed inside the cell by passing a shock wave of
appropriate strength. Also the functionality of DNA will not be affected by the impact of
the shock wave.
2] Wood preservation: By using shock waves, chemical preservatives in the form of
solutions could be pushed into the interiors of the wood samples such as bamboo. This
process of introducing preservatives into the wood is much faster and more efficient, also
saves wood from microbiological decaying.
3] Use in pencil industry: while manufacturing pencils, the wood is softened by soaking
in the polymer at 700 C for about three hours and takes days for wood to dry. But in
modern process, using shock waves the wood is placed in the liquid and a shock wave is
sent through. The liquid gets into the wood almost instantaneously and don’t required
long time for drying. This shock wave treated wood is ready to use for further process
without any delay.
4] Kidney stone treatment: Shock waves are used to shatter the kidney stones into
smaller fragments after which, they are passed out of the body smoothly through urinary
tracts.
5] Shock waves assisted needleless drug delivery: by using shock waves, drugs can be
injected into the body without using needles. The drug is filled inside the cartridge which
is kept pressed on the skin and then a shock wave is sent into the using high pressure. The
drug enters the body through the pores of the skin. In this process, the patient doesn’t
experience any pain.
6] Treatment of dry borewells: A shock wave sent through the dry borewell clears the
blockages and rejuvenates the borewell into a water source.

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 MODULE – 1
Important Questions
WAVES AND OSCILLATIONS
1 Define simple harmonic oscillations . Derive the expression for differential
equation for SHM and mention its solution
2 What is the expression for period of oscillation for a mass spring oscillator?
Derive the expression for equivalent force constant for springs in series and
parallel combination. mention the expression for period of its oscillation
3 What are damped vibrations/oscillations? Give the theory of damped
vibrations/oscillations, and find the condition of heavy, critical and light damping
4 What are forced oscillations ? Obtain an expression for amplitude and phase of
the body undergoing forced vibrations.
5 Discuss the dependence of amplitude and phase of a forced vibrations on the
frequency of the applied external force
6 Define sharpness of resonance . Write a short note on Helmholtz resonator
Practice all worked out problems from the Basavraju text book

SHOCK WAVES

1 Define mach number and distinguish between acoustic, ultrasonic, subsonic and
supersonic waves
2 Explain the conservational laws of mass, momentum and energy
3 Explain the construction and working of Reddy shock tube experiment]
4 Explain the applications of shock waves
Practice all worked out problems from the Basavraju text book

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 27