MODULE - 2

ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Elasticity and Plasticity

When the deforming forces applied to a body is removed, the body tends to recover its
original shape or size. This property of material to recover its original condition when
deforming forces are removed is called elasticity.

Based on their elastic properties bodies are classified as perfectly elastic and perfectly
plastic.

 The bodies which recover its original condition completely on the removal of
deforming force are called perfectly elastic body.
 The bodies which do not show any tendency to recover their original condition on
the removal of deforming forces are called perfectly plastic body.

Deforming Force: Consider a body which is not free to move and is acted upon by
external forces. Due to the action of external forces the body changes its shape or sizes
hence the body is now said to be deformed. Thus the applied external force which cause
deformation is called deforming force.

Restoring force: When deforming force is applied to a body then molecules of body
tends to displace from their equilibrium position. As a result of this a reaction force
develops within the body which tries to bring the molecule to its equilibrium position.
This reaction force which is developed in the body is called internal force or elastic force
or restoring force.

Rigid body: A rigid body can be defined as one which does not undergo any deformation
under the action of various deforming forces. When forces are applied on a rigid body the

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distance between any two particles of the body will remain unchanged, however large the
force may be. In actual practice no material body is perfectly rigid.

Load: It is the combination of external forces acting on a body. The effect of load is to
change the form or the dimensions of the body. It is thus essentially a deforming force.

Stress

[QUESTION: DEFINE STRESS AND STRAIN. EXPLAIN THREE DIFFERENT TYPES OF

STRESS AND STRAIN]

The body deforms when a load or deforming forces applied on it. But the restoring force
acting on the body balance the load and restore the body to its original condition. This
restoring force per unit area set up inside the body is called stress. The restoring force is
equal in magnitude but opposite to that of the applied force. Therefore stress is given by
the ratio of the applied force to the area. Unit of stress is Nm-2

𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑵
i.e 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒎𝟐

Strain

When a load or deforming force acts on a body, the body may change its length, shape or
volume. When this happens body is said to be deformed or strained. Thus strain is a
measure of changes produced in a body under the influence of deforming force. It is
defined as the ratio of change in dimensions of the body to its original dimensions.

Deformation is of three types, resulting in three types of stress and strains, defined as
follows:

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1] Tensile stress / longitudinal stress

Consider a wire of length ‘L’ (Fig 1) whose one end is fixed and other end is free. When
deforming force is applied to the free end, the wire stretches further, which increases its
length slightly. This stretching force acting per unit area of the section of the wire along
its length is called as tensile or longitudinal stress.

Fig 1.

𝑭
Longitudinal stress =
𝒂

1] Linear strain or Tensile strain or Longitudinal strain:

If the shape of the body is in the form of a long wire (Fig.1) and if a force is applied at
one end along its length keeping the other end fixed, the wire undergoes a change in
length. If x is the change in length produced for an original length L then,

changein length x
Linear strain = =
original length L

2] Tangential stress / Shear stress

It is the force acting tangentially per unit area on the surface of the body. If the force is
applied tangentially to the free portion of the body, then it layers slide one over the other
and the body experiences a turning effect and changes its shape. This effect is called as
tangential / shearing stress.

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 Fig. 2

Consider a solid cube (Fig. 2) whose lower face DCRS is fixed. A tangential force ‘F’ is
applied to its upper free end as shown in figure. Under the action of this force, the layers
of the cube which are parallel to the applied force slide over the other in such a way that,
the point shifts to 𝐴′ , B to 𝐵′ , P to 𝑃′ and Q to 𝑄′ . Therefore the planes of the two phases
ABCD and PQRS can be said to have turned through an angle 𝜃. This angle is called as
angle of shear.

𝑭
Tangential or shearing stress =
𝒂

Shear strain: in case of shearing, shearing angle (Fig. 2) 𝜃, it self is a measure of the
ratio of change in dimensions to original dimensions.

𝑃𝑃′ 𝑥
Therefore 𝜃 = =
𝑃𝑆 𝐿

𝒙
Therefore Shear strain =
𝑳

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3] Compressive stress / Volume stress

Fig. 3

The compressive stress is restoring force developed within the body when body
compressed under the action of deforming force. When the deforming force is applied
normally and uniformly to the entire surface of a body (Fig. 3), it produces a volume
strain (𝑉 ′ )

𝐹
Compressive stress =
𝑎

Volume strain:
If a uniform force is applied all over the surface of a body (Fig. 3) then the body
undergoes a change in its volume. If v is the change in volume to an original volume V of
the body then,

change in volume 𝒗′
Volume strain = =
original volume 𝑽

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 Hooke’s Law
[QUESTION: State Hook’s law, explain the limitations of Hooks law with
stress/strain diagram]
It states that “Within elastic limit (provided strain is small) stress produced in a body is
proportional to strain”. Thus in such a case the ratio of stress to strain is a constant and it
is called the modulus of elasticity or coefficient of elasticity
i.e 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
= constant
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
= E
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
Where E is called elastic constant or elastic modulus.

Stress – Strain relationship in a wire / Limitations or failures of Hooks law

This graph is obtained by plotting various values of stress and strain of a wire subjected
to the increasing tension. In the graph the part OA of the curve shows that the strain
produced is directly proportional to the stress and the Hook’s law is obeyed perfectly up
to A. Therefore on the removal of the stress the wire will recover its original length as

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long as the stress is below the elastic limit. As soon as the elastic limit is crossed, the
strain increases more rapidly than the stress and is represented by AB. The curve AB
corresponds to a state in which material wire is partly elastic and partly plastic. Hence on
being unloaded here, say at the point B, the wire does not come back to its original
condition along AO, but takes the dotted path BC. Thus there remains a residual strain
OC in it, which is permanent set acquired by the wire.
Beyond the point B, there is a large increase in strain up to D. This point B where
the large increase in strain commences is called the yield point, the stress corresponding
to it being known as the yielding stress. The extension of the wire goes on increasing
beyond F and the wire finally snaps or breaks at E, which thus represents the breaking
point for it.

STRAIN HARDENING AND STRAIN SOFTENING

[QUESTION: EXPLAIN STRAIN HARDING AND STRAIN SOFTNING OF THE MATERIAL]

Strain hardening : If stress is again applied on certain deformed materials, they show up
an increased yield point, this effect is called strain hardening. This process is used in
industries to harden metals or alloys which do not respond to heat treatment.

Consider a material, which is stressed beyond the yield point as shown in the figure
(beyond point R), so that the material gets deformed and is in the plastic range. Let it be
unloaded gradually from the point R. Then the stress-strain curve corresponding to

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unloading is given by a parallel dotted line in the graph. This curve meets the strain axis
at ‘T’ therefore 𝑂𝑇 = 𝜖 shows a residual plastic strain, which remains in the deformed
material as a permanent set.

Now if this deformed material is again subjected to the increasing stress, then the new
strain-strain curve develops by shifting the origin from 𝑂 to 𝑂′ as shown in figure. It is
observed that, the new yield point at ‘U’ corresponds to R, which shows the yield point is
increased compared to the previous curve. This shows that, a plastically deformed
specimen has a higher yield stress than for the one that has not undergone plastic
deformation. Hence it is called hardened and the process is called as strain-hardening.

Strain softening : For certain materials, such as concrete or soil, the stress-strain curve
will be typically as shown in figure.

Here, the curve have a negative slope soon after the elastic region. The negative slope
indicates that there is softening effect of the material at this range, this effect is called as
strain softening.

Failures ( Fracture or fatigue)

A machine is made for repeated use. A machine has many structural components that are
subjected to repeated loading while in use. For example, the parts of automobiles,
aircrafts, turbines etc. get compressed when they are loaded. When they are repeatedly

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used, cracks began to form and complete destruction takes place which is termed as a
fracture. There are two types of fracture namely, brittle fracture and ductile fracture. A
brittle fracture occurs due to swift propagation of a crack formulated suddenly. Whereas,
a ductile fracture propagates slowly with considerable plastic deformation. A completely
brittle material suffers fracture almost at the elastic limit. For a ductile material on the
other hand, crack propagates slowly and finally fractures.

Types of elasticity

Corresponding to the three types of strain, we have three types of elasticity

a) Young’s modulus (Elasticity of length)

b) Bulk modulus (Elasticity of volume)
c) Rigidity modulus ( shear strain)

Young’s modulus (Y)

The ratio of longitudinal stress to linear strain within the elastic limits is called as
Young’s modulus and is denoted by Y.

If F is the force applied normally, to a cross-sectional area a, then the stress is F/a. If L is
original length and x is change in length due to the applied force, the strain is given by
x/L. Then young’s modulus is given by

𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑭⁄ 𝑭𝑳
𝒂
Y = = 𝒙⁄ = N/m2
𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑳 𝒙𝒂

Bulk modulus (K)

The ratio of compressive stress to the volume strain without change in shape of the body
with in the elastic limits is called as bulk modulus. It is denoted by ‘K’

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 If ‘F’ is the force applied uniformly and normally on a surface area ‘a’ the stress or
pressure is ‘F/a’ or P and if ‘v’ is the change in volume produced in an original volume
V, the strain is given by ‘v/V’ and therefore

𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑭⁄ 𝑭𝑽
𝒂
K = = 𝒗⁄ =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑽 𝒂𝒗

𝐹
But pressure 𝑃= 𝑎

𝑷𝑽 𝑵
K = 𝒗 𝒎𝟐

Rigidity modulus ( ƞ)
Rigidity modulus is defined as the ratio of the tangential stress to the shearing strain.
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹⁄ 𝐹⁄
𝑎 𝑎
Rigidity modulus = ƞ = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜃
= 𝑥⁄
𝐿

𝐹𝐿
Ƞ = N/m2
𝑎𝑥

Coefficient of longitudinal strain (𝜶)

Longitudinal strain produced per unit stress is called longitudinal strain coefficient.
Let ‘T’ be the applied stress, then

𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑥⁄

= 𝛼 = 𝐿
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑇

𝒙
𝜶=
𝑻𝑳

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 Lateral strain and lateral strain coefficient (𝜷)
Lateral strain produced per unit stress is called as lateral coefficient.
If the original diameter of a wire is ‘D’ and the change in the diameter of the wire is ‘d’
then the lateral strain is given by
𝑑
Lateral strain =
𝐷
If ‘T’ is applied stress, then
𝑑⁄
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝐷
= 𝛽 =
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑇
𝒅
𝜷=
𝑻𝑫

POISSON’S RATIO: (𝝈)

Within the elastic limits of a body, the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is a
constant and is called Poisson’s ratio. It is denoted by 𝜎
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜎=
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑑⁄
𝐷
𝜎= 𝑥
⁄𝐿
𝐿𝑑
𝜎= ------------------------------ (1)
𝑥𝐷
Poisson’s ratio has no units, it is pure number and hence a dimensionless quantity.

𝑑⁄
𝑇𝐷
𝛽
Let us consider the ratio = 𝑥⁄
𝛼 𝑇𝐿
𝛽 𝐿𝑑
= ------------------------------ (2)
𝛼 𝑥𝐷
From equation (1) and (2), we have
𝜷
𝝈 =
𝜶
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 Expression for Y, K and ƞ in terms of 𝜶 and 𝜷

The expression for Y, K and ƞ in terms of 𝛼 and 𝛽 are given as follows

1
1. 𝑌 =
𝛼
1
2. 𝐾 =
3 (𝛼 − 2𝛽)
1
3. Ƞ =
2( 𝛼 + 𝛽)

RELATIO BETWEEN ELONGATION STRAIN, SHEARING STRAIN AND

COMPRESSION STRAIN
[QUESTION: Derive the reation between sharing strain, elongation strain and
compression strain]

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Consider a cube whose lower surface is fixed. Let APSD be one of its faces with the side
DS along the fixed side as shown in figure 1. When the deforming force is applied to its
upper face along AP, it causes displacement at different parts of the cube so that, A
moves to 𝐴′ and P moves to 𝑃′ . Let 𝜃 be the angle of shear. Here the diagonal AS of the
cube shrunk to 𝐴′ 𝑆 and diagonal DP stretched to a length 𝐷𝑃 ′ . These two takes place at
right angles to each other.

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Let ‘PX’ is drawn perpendicular to 𝐷𝑃′ and 𝐴′ 𝑌 drawn perpendicular ‘AS’

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙

Then 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑃′ 𝑋
i.e 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ------------------ (1)
𝐷𝑃

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙

Similarly 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙

𝐴𝑌
i.e 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ------------------ (2)
𝐴𝑆

If ‘L’ is the length of each side of the cube, then by applying Pythagoras theorem,

We have from triangle ASD Similarly from triangle DPS

(𝐴𝑆)2 = (𝐴𝐷)2 + (𝐷𝑆)2 (𝐷𝑃)2 = (𝑃𝑆)2 + (𝑆𝐷)2

(𝐴𝑆)2 = (𝐿)2 + (𝐿)2 (𝐷𝑃)2 = (𝐿)2 + (𝐿)2

(𝐴𝑆)2 = 2𝐿2 (𝐷𝑃)2 = 2𝐿2

𝐴𝑆 = √2 𝐿 𝐷𝑃 = √2 𝐿 ------------------ (3)

0
In the above figure, in the isosceles right angle triangle, angle 𝐴𝑃𝐷 and angle 𝐴𝑃′ 𝐷 ≈ 45

Therefore in the figure, from triangle 𝑃𝑃′ 𝑋, we can have

𝑃′ 𝑋
cos 450 =
𝑃𝑃′

𝑃′ 𝑋 = 𝑃𝑃′ cos 450

𝑃𝑃′ 1
𝑃′ 𝑋 = ------------------ (4) { Cause cos 450 = }
√2 √2

Substituting equation (3) & (4) in equation (1), we have

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 𝑃𝑃′
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = √2
√2 𝐿

𝑃𝑃′
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
2𝐿

𝑃𝑃′
But the shearing angle 𝜃 from the figure 2 is given by 𝜃 =
𝐿

𝜃
Therefore 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
2

Similarly compression strain can be shown as

𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
2

𝜃 𝜃
Therefore 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 + 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
2
+ 2
= 𝜃, which is
shearing strain

Therefore shearing strain = 𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

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RELATION BETWEEN YOUNG’S MODULUS (𝒀), RIGIDITY MODULUS (ƞ)
AND POISSON’S RAIO (𝝈)

[QUESTION: Derive the relation between 𝒀, ƞ AND 𝝈/ Derive the relation

between youngs modulus, rigidity modulus and poissons ratio]

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Consider a cube whose lower surface is fixed. Let APSD be one of its faces with the side
DS along the fixed side as shown in figure 1. When the deforming force is applied to its
upper face along AP, it causes displacement at different parts of the cube so that, A
moves to 𝐴′ and P moves to 𝑃′ . Let 𝜃 be the angle of shear. Here the diagonal AS of the
cube shrunk to 𝐴′ 𝑆 and diagonal DP stretched to a length D𝑃′ .
Here the shearing strain along AP is equivalent to longitudinal strain along the diagonal
D𝑃′ and also lateral strain along the diagonal 𝐴′ 𝑆. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the longitudinal strain
and lateral strain coefficients produced per unit stress, and if ‘T’ is the unit stress,
Then the extension produced along the diagonal DP due to longitudinal strain = 𝑇. 𝐷𝑃. 𝛼
Similarly the extension produced along the diagonal DP due to compressive / lateral
strain = 𝑇. 𝐷𝑃. 𝛽
Therefore total extension produced along 𝐷𝑃 = 𝑇. 𝐷𝑃. 𝛼 + 𝑇. 𝐷𝑃. 𝛽
total extension produced along 𝐷𝑃 = 𝑇. 𝐷𝑃 (𝛼 + 𝛽 )
But from Fig. 1 total extension produced along DP is 𝑃′ 𝑋
Therefore above equation becomes 𝑃′ 𝑋 = 𝑇. 𝐷𝑃 (𝛼 + 𝛽 ) ------------------ (1)

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In Fig.1, from triangle DPS, by applying Pythagoras theorem, we have

(𝐷𝑃)2 = (𝑃𝑆)2 + (𝑆𝐷)2

(𝐷𝑃)2 = (𝐿)2 + (𝐿)2

(𝐷𝑃)2 = (2𝐿)2

(𝐷𝑃)2 = 4 𝐿2

𝐷𝑃 = √2 𝐿 ------------------ (2)

Substituting equation (2) in (1), we have

𝑃′ 𝑋 = 𝑇. √2 𝐿 (𝛼 + 𝛽 ) ------------------ (3)
In Fig.1, from triangle 𝑃𝑃 ′ 𝑋, we can have

𝑃′ 𝑋
cos 450 =
𝑃𝑃′

𝑃′ 𝑋 = 𝑃𝑃′ cos 450

𝑃𝑃′ 1
𝑃′ 𝑋 = ------------------ (4) { Cause cos 450 = }
√2 √2

Substituting equation (4) in (3), we have

𝑃𝑃′
= 𝑇. √2 𝐿 (𝛼 + 𝛽)
√2
𝑃𝑃′ = 𝑇𝐿 √2√2 (𝛼 + 𝛽)

𝑃𝑃′ = 𝑇𝐿. 2 (𝛼 + 𝛽 )
But from Fig.1 𝑃𝑃′ = 𝑥
Therefore 𝑥 = 𝑇𝐿. 2 (𝛼 + 𝛽)
𝑥
By rearranging 2 (𝛼 + 𝛽 ) =
𝑇𝐿

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 1 𝑇𝐿
Inverting equations on both sides =
2 (𝛼 + 𝛽 ) 𝑥
1 𝑇
We can write = 𝑥
2 (𝛼 + 𝛽 )
𝐿
𝑥
But Shearing strain 𝜃 =
𝐿
1 𝑇
So above equation becomes = 𝜃 ------------------ (5)
2 (𝛼 + 𝛽 )

We know that rigidity modulus ƞ is given by

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
ƞ =
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

ƞ =
𝑇
𝜃
1
Therefore equation (5) becomes ƞ =
2 (𝛼 + 𝛽 )

1
ƞ =
𝛽
2𝛼(1+ 𝛼 )
𝛽
But we know that, Poisson’s ratio is given by 𝜎 =
𝛼

1
Therefore we have ƞ =
2 𝛼 ( 1+ 𝜎 )
1
𝛼
ƞ = ------------------ (5)
2 ( 1+ 𝜎 )
W. K. T, Youngs modulus ‘Y’ is given as
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Y =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

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 1
Y = 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
1 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Y = {becaz Longitudinal strain coefficient 𝛼 = }
𝛼 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝑌
Therefore equation (5) becomes ƞ =
2 ( 1+ 𝜎 )

OR 𝒀 = 𝟐 ƞ( 𝟏 + 𝝈 )

RELATION BETWEEN BULK MODULUS (𝑲), YOUNGS MODULUS (𝒀) AND

POISSON’S RAIO (𝝈)

[QUESTION: Derive the relation between 𝑲, 𝒀 AND 𝝈/ Derive the relation between Youngs

modulus, Rigidity modulus and Poissons ratio]

Consider a cube of unit length, breadth and height. Let 𝑇𝑥 , 𝑇𝑌 and 𝑇𝑧 be the outward
stresses acting along the X, Y and Z direction as shown in the figure. Let 𝛼 be the
elongation per unit length per unit stress along the direction of the force. Let 𝛽 be the
contraction per unit length per unit stress in a direction perpendicular to the forces.

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 18

When the force applied on X axis, then elongation ( increase in length) is 𝛼𝑇𝑥 and
contraction is 𝛽𝑇𝑌 and 𝛽𝑇𝑧 . Hence in the cube along X – direction, the unit length now
becomes equal to
1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑌 − 𝛽 𝑇𝑧
Similarly along Y and Z directions the respective length becomes equal to
1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑌 − 𝛽𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽 𝑇𝑧
1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑍 − 𝛽𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑌
Therefore, the new volume of the cube = (1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑌 − 𝛽 𝑇𝑧 ) (1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑌 −
𝛽𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑧 ) (1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑍 − 𝛽𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑌 )
Here 𝛼 and 𝛽 are very small, hence the terms that contains either product or powers of
𝛼 and 𝛽 can be neglected.
Therefore, the new volume of the cube = (1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑌 − 𝛽𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑧 + 𝛼𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑌 −
𝛽𝑇𝑧 ) (1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑍 − 𝛽𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑌 )
Therefore, the new volume of the cube = ( 1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑍 − 𝛽𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑌 + 𝛼𝑇𝑌 −
𝛽 𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑧 + 𝛼𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑌 − 𝛽𝑇𝑧 )
The new volume of the cube = ( 1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑍 − 2𝛽𝑇𝑥 − 2𝛽𝑇𝑌 + 𝛼𝑇𝑌 − 2𝛽𝑇𝑧 𝛼𝑇𝑥 )
The new volume of the cube = ( 1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑍 − 2𝛽𝑇𝑥 − 2𝛽𝑇𝑌 + 𝛼𝑇𝑌 − 2𝛽𝑇𝑧 + 𝛼𝑇𝑥 )
Rearranging the above equation we can write
The new volume of the cube = (1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑥 + 𝛼𝑇𝑌 + 𝛼𝑇𝑍 − 2𝛽𝑇𝑥 − 2𝛽𝑇𝑌 − 2𝛽𝑇𝑧 )
The new volume of the cube = 1 + 𝛼 (𝑇𝑥 + 𝑇𝑌 + 𝑇𝑍 ) − 2𝛽 (𝑇𝑥 + 𝑇𝑌 + 𝑇𝑧 )
The new volume of the cube = 1 + (𝛼 − 2𝛽) (𝑇𝑥 + 𝑇𝑌 + 𝑇𝑍 )
If 𝑇𝑥 = 𝑇𝑌 = 𝑇𝑍 = 𝑇, then the above equation becomes
The new volume of the cube = 1 + (𝛼 − 2𝛽) 3T
Since the cube we have considered is of unit volume
The change in the volume = 1 + (𝛼 − 2𝛽) 3𝑇 − 1
The change in the volume = 3𝑇 (𝛼 − 2𝛽)

If instead of outward stress T , a pressure P is applied,

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 19
Then the change in the volume = 3𝑃 (𝛼 − 2𝛽)
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
The volume strain =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
3𝑃 (𝛼− 2𝛽)
The volume strain = {because the original volume of the cube is unity}
1
Therefore volume strain = 3𝑃 (𝛼 − 2𝛽)

But we know that, the bulk modulus is given by

𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐾=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
If ‘P’ is the pressure
𝑃
𝐾=
3𝑃 (𝛼 − 2𝛽)
1
𝐾=
3 (𝛼 − 2𝛽)
1
𝐾= 2𝛽
3𝛼 (1 −
𝛼)
1
(𝛼 )
𝐾= 2𝛽
3 (1 −
𝛼)
1
We know that, youngs modulus is given by Y = , and Poissons ratio is given by
𝛼
2𝛽
𝜎= 𝛼
Therefore above equation becomes
𝒀
𝑲=
𝟑(𝟏 − 𝟐𝜎)

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 20

RELATION BETWEEN BULK MODULUS (K), RIGIDITY MODULUS (ƞ) AND
YOUNGS MODULUS (Y)
[QUESTION: Derive the relation between K, ƞ and Y]
We know that, the relation between 𝑌, ƞ & 𝝈 is given by
𝑌 = 2ƞ( 1 + 𝜎 )
𝑌
= (2+ 2𝜎) --------------------- (1)
ƞ

Similarly, we know that, the relation between 𝐾, 𝑌 & 𝝈 is given by

𝑌
𝐾=
3(1 − 2𝜎)
𝑌= 3𝐾 (1 − 2𝜎 )
𝑌
= (1− 2𝜎) --------------------- (2)
3𝐾

Adding equation (1) and (2) we have

𝑌 𝑌
+ = 3
ƞ 3𝐾

𝑌 (3𝐾 + ƞ)
=3
3ƞ𝐾
𝟗ƞ𝑲
𝒀 =
𝟑𝑲 + ƞ
RELATION BETWEEN BULK MODULUS (K), RIGIDITY MODULUS (ƞ) AND
POISSONS RATIO (𝝈) AND THE LIMITING VALUES OF 𝝈
[QUESTION: Derive the relation between K, ƞ and 𝝈, What are the limiting values of 𝝈 ]
We know that, the relation between 𝑌, ƞ & 𝝈 is given by
𝑌 = 2ƞ( 1 + 𝜎 ) --------------------- (1)
Similarly, we know that, the relation between 𝐾, 𝑌 & 𝝈 is given by
𝑌
𝐾=
3(1 − 2𝜎)
𝑌= 3𝐾 (1 − 2𝜎 ) ---------------- (2)
From equation (1) and (2), we get

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 21

 2ƞ( 1 + 𝜎 ) = 3𝐾 (1 − 2𝜎)
2ƞ + 2ƞ𝜎 = 3𝐾 − 6𝐾𝜎
2ƞ𝜎 + 6𝐾𝜎 = 3𝐾 − 2ƞ
𝟑𝑲 − 𝟐ƞ
𝝈 =
𝟐ƞ + 𝟔𝑲
Limiting values of 𝝈
We have the relations 𝑌 = 2ƞ( 1 + 𝜎 ) and 𝑌 = 3𝐾 (1 − 2𝜎 )
From the above equations, we have
2ƞ( 1 + 𝜎 ) = 3𝐾 (1 − 2𝜎) ---------------- (1)
Here if 𝜎 is given the positive value, then left side of the above equation (1) will be
positive. Right side of the equation (1) will be positive only if it does not take a value
1 1
more than because, if 𝜎 takes a value more than , then 2𝜎 becomes becomes more
2 2
than 1 and (1 - 2𝜎) becomes negative. Therefore 𝜎 can take only values lesser than 0.5
only.
On the other hand if 𝜎 is given negative value, then for any value of 𝜎, right side of eq.
(1) only will be positive. Thus the values of 𝜎 always lie between -1 and + 0.5. however
in practice the limiting values of 𝜎 is usually taken between 0 and +0.5.

BENDING OF BEAMS
[QUESTION: OBTAIN AN EXPRESSION FOR THE BENDING MOMENT OF A BEAM/BAR
WITH RECTANGLE CROSS SECTION/CIRCULAR CROSS SECTION]

Figure 1
Consider a long uniform beam, whose one end is fixed to rigid support and other end is
free. The beam can be thought of as made up of a number of parallel layers like

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AB,CD,EF as shown in figure1. If load is attached to the free end then the beam bends.
As a result, the successive layers are strained. The layer AB which is above the neutral
surface (here CD is the neutral axis) will be elongated to 𝐴′ 𝐵′ and the layer EF below the
neutral surface will be contracted to 𝐸 ′ 𝐹 ′ as shown in the figure. But the neutral axis CD
does not change its length.
The shape of different layers of the bent beam can be imagined to form part of concentric
circles of varying radii as shown in figure1. Let R be the radii of the circle to which the
neutral surface form a part.
Therefor 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑅𝜃 ----------------------------- (1)
where 𝜃 is the angle subtended by the layers of the concentric circles at the common
center ‘O’
Before the beam bends, the original length of AB = CD
Therefore the original length of AB = 𝑅𝜃 --------------------- (2) [using equation1]
From figure 1, the layer AB has been elongated to 𝐴′ 𝐵′ and the successive layers are
separated by a distance ‘𝑟’,
Therefore 𝐴′ 𝐵′ = (𝑅 + 𝑟)𝜃 ----------------------------- (3)
Therefore the change in length = 𝐴′ 𝐵′ − 𝐴𝐵
OR the change in length = (𝑅 + 𝑟)𝜃 − 𝑅𝜃 [using equation (2) and (3)]
the change in length = 𝑅𝜃 + 𝑟𝜃 − 𝑅𝜃
OR the change in length = 𝑟𝜃 ----------------------------- (4)
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡
Therefore linear strain =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑟𝜃
linear strain = [using equation (4) and (2)]
𝑅𝜃
𝑟
linear strain =
𝑅 ----------------------------- (5)
We know that, the longitudinal stress is given by
𝐹
longitudinal stress = ----------------------------- (6) where ‘F’ is force and ‘a’ is area
𝑎
We know that, the Youngs modulus is given by
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌 =
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 23
 𝐹
( )
𝑎
𝑌 = 𝑟 [using equation (5) and (6)]
( )
𝑅
𝐹 𝑅
𝑌 = (𝑎 ) 𝑋 ( 𝑟 )
𝐹𝑅
𝑌 =
𝑎𝑟
𝑌𝑎𝑟
OR 𝐹 =
𝑅
Moment of force about the neutral axis / bending moment = F x its distance from
neutral axis
i.e Bending moment = 𝐹 𝑋 𝑟
𝑌𝑎𝑟
Bending moment = (
𝑅 ).𝑟
𝑌𝑎𝑟 2
Bending moment =
𝑅
But the moment of force acting on the entire beam is therefore given by
𝑌𝑎𝑟 2
Bending moment = ∑
𝑅
𝑌 𝑎𝑟 2
Bending moment = ∑
𝑅 𝑅
In the above equation the geometric moment of inertia is given by 𝐼𝑔 = ∑ 𝑎𝑟2
𝑌
Therefore Bending moment = 𝐼𝑔
𝑅
𝒀𝑰𝒈
Bending moment =
𝑹
The expression for varies with the geometrical shape and beams cross section. Therefore
the geometrical moment of inertia of a beam of rectangular cross – section of breadth ‘b’
and thickness ‘d’ is given by
3
𝑏𝑑
𝐼𝑔 =
12
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 𝒀 𝒃𝒅𝟑
Therefore, bending moment of a beam of rectangular cross section = ( )
𝑹 𝟏𝟐
𝒀𝝅 𝟒
Similarly, bending moment for a beam of circular cross section = 𝒓
𝑹𝟒

SINGLE CANTILEVER
[QUESTION : DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE YOUNG’S MODULUS OF A
SINGLE CANTILEVER]

W
Consider a uniform beam MN of length ‘L’ which is fixed at the point M. let a load ‘W’
acts on the beam at the point N, as a result the beam bends as shown in figure. Consider a
point ‘P’ on the beam at a distance ′𝒙′ from the fixed end, which will be at (𝐿 − 𝑥) from
N.
Let 𝑃′ be the position after the beam is bent, therefore the bending moment between P to
N will be given by
Bending moment = Force X perpendicular distance between MN
Bending moment = 𝑊 (𝐿 − 𝑥) ----------------------------- (1)
But we know that, the bending moment of the beam is given by
𝑌
Bending moment = 𝐼
𝑅 𝑔
Therefore equation (1) becomes
𝑌
𝐼 = 𝑊 (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝑅 𝑔
1 𝑊 (𝐿−𝑥)
= --------------------------- (2)
𝑅 𝑌 𝐼𝑔

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But if ′𝑦′ is the depression at the point then it can be shown that,
1 𝑑2𝑦
=
𝑅 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑊 (𝐿−𝑥)
Therefore equation (2) becomes =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑌 𝐼𝑔
𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑊 (𝐿 − 𝑥)
( ) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑌 𝐼𝑔
𝑑𝑦 𝑊 (𝐿. 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥)
𝑑( ) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑌 𝐼𝑔
Integrating the above equation on both sides, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑊 𝑥2
= (𝐿𝑥 − )
𝑑𝑥 𝑌 𝐼𝑔 2
𝑊 𝑥2
𝑑𝑦 = (𝐿𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 − . 𝑑𝑥)
𝑌 𝐼𝑔 2
Integrating above equation both the sides, we get
𝑊 𝐿𝑥 2 𝑥3
𝑦 = ( − )
𝑌 𝐼𝑔 2 6
At the loaded end the depression 𝑦 = 𝑦0 and 𝑥 = 𝐿
Therefore above equation becomes
𝑊 𝐿3 𝐿3
𝑦0 = ( − )
𝑌 𝐼𝑔 2 6
𝑊 𝐿3 𝐿3
𝑦0 = ( − )
𝑌 𝐼𝑔 2 6
𝑊𝐿3
𝑦0 =
3𝑌 𝐼𝑔
𝑊𝐿3
OR 𝑌 = 3𝑦0 𝐼𝑔
If the beam is having rectangular cross section with breadth ‘b’ and thickness ‘d’, then 𝐼𝑔

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 𝑏𝑑3
is given by 𝐼𝑔 = 12
Therefore Youngs modulus is given by
𝑊𝐿3
𝑌 = 3
𝑏𝑑
3𝑦0 ( )
12
𝑊𝐿3 𝑋 12
𝑌 = 3
3𝑦0 𝑏𝑑
𝟒𝑾𝑳𝟑
𝒀 =
𝒃𝒅𝟑 𝒚𝟎
𝟒𝒎𝒈𝑳𝟑
But here 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 therefore 𝒀 =
𝒃𝒅𝟑 𝒚𝟎

DIFFERENT TYPES OF BEAMS AND THEIR ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

[QUESTION: Explain different types of beam and their appilcations]

There are four types of beams as shown in the figure, they are
 Simple beam
 Continuous beam
 Cantilever beam
 Fixed beam
A simple is a bar resting on a support at its ends as shown in figure. This is most
commonly used beam.
A continuous beam is a bar resting upon more than two supports.
A cantilever is beam whose one end is fixed and the other end is free
A beam which is fixed at its both ends is called as fixed beam.
Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 27
Applications: beams are used
 In the fabrication of trolley ways.
 In the frame as truck bends
 In the elevators
 In the construction of platforms and bridges

TORSION OF A CYLINDER
[QUESTION : DERIVE THE EXPRESSION FOR COUPLE PER UNIT TWIST OF A SOLID
CYLINDER]

Consider a long cylindrical rod of length ‘L’ and radius ‘R’, rigidly fixed to its upper end
as shown in figure. Let 𝑂𝑂′ be its axis. We can imagine the cylindrical rod to be made of
thin concentric hollow cylinder layers each of thickness 𝑑𝑟. If the rod is twisted at its
lower end, then the concentric layers slide over one another.
Let us consider one such concentric circular layer of radius ‘r’ and thickness 𝑑𝑟
A point at ‘X’ on the top remains fixed and a point ‘B’ at its bottom shifts to 𝐵′ , so that
the angle 𝐵𝑋𝐵1 = ∅ is the shearing angle.
Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 28
Since ∅ is very small, we have from the angle 𝐵𝑋𝐵1
𝐵𝐵1
∅ =
𝑋𝐵
𝐵𝐵1
∅ =
𝐿
1
𝐵𝐵 = 𝐿∅ ----------------------------- (1)
Similarly, the angle 𝐵𝑂1 𝐵1 = 𝜃, so that the arc length 𝐵𝐵1 is given by
𝐵𝐵1 = 𝑟𝜃 ----------------------------- (2)
From equation (1) and (2), we have
𝐿∅ = 𝑟𝜃
𝑟𝜃
OR ∅ = ----------------------------- (3)
𝐿
If ‘F’ is the force and the cross sectional area of the concentric circular layer under
consideration is 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟, then the shearing stress is given by
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Shearing stress =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹
Shearing stress = ----------------------------- (4)
2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
If ∅ is angle through which the layer is sheared then shearing strain is given by
shearing strain = ∅ ----------------------------- (5)
we know that the rigidity modulus is given by
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
ƞ =
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
therefore using equation (1) and (2), we have

(
𝐹 )
ƞ = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
∅
using equation (3) we have

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 29

 (
𝐹 )
ƞ = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝜃
( )
𝐿
𝐹𝐿
ƞ =
2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝑟𝜃
𝐹𝐿
ƞ =
2
2𝜋𝜃 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
ƞ2𝜋𝜃 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟
𝐹 = ----------------------------- (6)
𝐿
But moment of force at 𝑂𝑂′ = F x r
ƞ2𝜋𝜃 𝑟2𝑑𝑟
Therefore moment of force = ( ) .𝑟
𝐿
3
ƞ2𝜋𝜃 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
moment of force =
𝐿
but this is regarding only layer of the cylinder, but the twisting couple acting on the
entire cylinder is given as
twisting couple acting on the entire cylinder =
𝑟=𝑅
ƞ2𝜋𝜃𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
∫
𝐿
𝑟=0
twisting couple acting on the entire cylinder =
𝑅
ƞ2𝜋𝜃
∫ 𝑟3 𝑑𝑟
𝐿
0

ƞ2𝜋𝜃 𝑅4
twisting couple acting on the entire cylinder = ( )
𝐿 4
ƞ𝜋𝜃𝑅4
twisting couple acting on the entire cylinder =
2𝐿
But, the couple per unit twist, C is given by

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 30

 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
i.e Couple per unit twist = C =
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡

ƞ𝜋𝜃𝑅
4
( )
2𝐿
C =
𝜃
ƞ𝝅𝑹𝟒
Or C =
𝟐𝑳
Torque required to produce the unit twist is given by
𝜏 = 𝐶𝜃
ƞ𝝅𝑹𝟒
𝝉 =( )𝜽
𝟐𝑳

TORSIONAL PENDULUM AND ITS PERIOD

Consider a straight uniform wire whose one end is fixed to a rigid support and other end
is attached with a rigid body as shown in the figure. If the suspended body is rotated
slightly, then the wire gets twisted and the body undergoes to and fro turning motion
around the wire as its axis, such type of oscillations are called as torsional oscillations,
and this setup is called as torsional pendulum. As per theory of vibrations, the time period

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 31

of oscillation ‘T’ for a torsional pendulum is given by

𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋 √
𝐶
Where ‘I’ is the moment of inertia of the rigid body, ‘C’ is the couple/unit twist for the
wire
Applications: 1] it is possible to evaluate the moment of inertia of irregular bodies.
2] The rigidity modulus of a material can be found by taking the material in the form of a
wire.

MODULE – 2
Important Questions
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
1 Define stress and strain. Explain three different types of stress and strain

2 State Hook’s law, explain the limitations of Hooks law with stress/strain diagram

3 Explain strain harding and strain softening of the material

3 Derive the relation between sharing strain, elongation strain and compression
strain
4 Derive the relation between 𝑌, ƞ AND 𝜎/ Derive the relation between Youngs
modulus (Y), rigidity modulus (K) and Poissons ratio 𝜎
5 Derive the relation between 𝐾, 𝑌 and 𝜎 / Derive the relation between Youngs
modulus, Rigidity modulus and Poissons ratio
6 Derive the relation between K, ƞ and Y

7 Derive the relation between K, ƞ and 𝜎, What are the limiting values of 𝜎
8 Obtain an expression for the bending moment of a beam/bar with rectangle cross
section/ circular cross section.
9 Derive and expression for the Youngs modulus of a single cantilever
10 Obtain the expression for Couple per unit twist of a solid cylinder
Practice all worked out problems from the Basavraju text book

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