Manufacturing Process Subject code: BME302 Semester: 03 Module-3

MODULE – 3
METAL FORMING PROCESSES

Introduction of metal forming process: Mechanical behaviour of metals in elastic and plastic
deformation, stress-strain relationships, Yield criteria, Application to tensile testing, strain rate
and temperature in metal working; Hot deformation, Cold working and annealing.

Metal Working Processes: Fundamentals of metal working, Analysis of bulk forming processes
like forging, rolling, extrusion, wire drawing by slab method,

Other sheet metal processes: Sheet metal forming processes (Die and punch assembly,
Blanking, piercing, bending etc., Compound and Progressive die), High Energy rate forming
processes.
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INTRODUCTION OF METAL FORMING PROCESS
• Metal forming is a manufacturing process that involves shaping metal into a desired shape
or form without removing any material. This is achieved through the application of
mechanical force to the metal, which changes its shape but retains its original mass.
• There are several different metal forming techniques that are commonly used in industry.
• These techniques include forging, rolling, extrusion, drawing, and bending.
• Forging is a process in which metal is heated and then hammered or pressed into a desired
shape. This technique is often used to create strong and durable parts for machines and
vehicles, as the metal is compressed and densified during the forging process.
• Rolling involves passing metal through a series of rollers in order to reduce its thickness or
change its shape. This technique is often used to create sheets of metal or to shape metal into
specific forms such as pipes or tubes.
• Extrusion involves forcing metal through a die in order to create a long, continuous shape.
This technique is often used to create products such as aluminum window frames or
automotive parts.
• Drawing is a process in which metal is pulled through a die in order to create a longer, thinner
shape. This technique is often used to create wire or other thin metal products.

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• Bending involves applying force to the metal in order to change its shape without breaking
it. This technique is often used to create products such as metal tubes or structural components
for buildings.

• Metal forming is used in a wide range of industries, including aerospace, automotive,

construction, and manufacturing. The process can be used to create a variety of products,
including machine parts, building materials, and consumer goods.
• Advances in technology and new techniques are continually being developed to improve the
metal forming process and make it more efficient. Overall, metal forming is a critical
component of modern manufacturing and plays an important role in the production of many
products that we use in our daily lives.

Mechanical behavior of metals in elastic and plastic deformation

• Metals can deform under the application of external forces or stresses. This deformation can
be either elastic or plastic.

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Fig. Deformation Process

Elastic deformation:
• Elastic deformation occurs when the metal is subjected to small stresses, and it can recover
its original shape after the stress is removed.
• This is due to the metal’s ability to deform elastically, meaning that the atoms in the metal
can move slightly and then return to their original positions when the stress is removed.
• The amount of elastic deformation that a metal can undergo is determined by its elastic
modulus, which is a measure of its stiffness.
• The Original state of the material is reached on removal of the load. Refer Figure, Within OA
- elastic limit, i.e., Elastic deformation

Plastic deformation:
• Plastic deformation occurs when the metal is subjected to higher stresses, and it deforms
permanently.
• In plastic deformation, the atoms in the metal are permanently displaced from their original
positions.

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• This results in a permanent change in the shape of the metal, and it cannot be recovered to
its original shape by removing the stress.
• The amount of plastic deformation that a metal can undergo before it fractures is determined
by its yield strength.
• The load will be below the ultimate load point of the material. As the load on the material is
raised , the deformation also increases in the plastic range. Beyond point B is plastic
deformation.
Necking:
• Necking: Beyond the ultimate load the material undergoes deformation even without
increasing the external load.
• The ultimate load point (D) is called as the point of instability.
• From point C to D the material shows increasing resistance to deformation.
• The material will show continuous decrease in the cross section (when tensile load is applied)
and reaches a very low value called as necking,
• The behavior of metals under elastic and plastic deformation is important in various
engineering applications.
• For example, the design of structures must take into account the amount of stress that the
materials will be subjected to, and the material properties must be selected accordingly to
ensure that the structure does not fail under normal operating conditions.
• Understanding the mechanical behavior of metals under different types of deformation is
therefore essential for the successful design of structures and machines.

Stress –Strain curve for different materials

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TRUE STRESS- TRUE STRAIN CONCEPTS

• Conventional stress as already defined takes into account only the original area of cross
section while calculating the stress.
• However, the area of cross section will be changing continuously under the influence of
the external load.
• When the instantaneous area is taken for stress calculation the stress obtained is
referred to as “True Stress”.
• Likewise conventional strain takes into account only the original area of cross section while
calculating the strain.

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• If the instantaneous previous length is taken for strain calculation, then it is referred
to as “True Strain”.
• The conventional stress - conventional strain is also referred to as Engineering Stress -
Engineering strain relationship.
• But obtaining true stress and true strain values need sophisticated instrumentation, takes
very long interval of time, very slow strain rates are required and tedious.

Fig. 1.3 shows stepwise increase in the load with corresponding change in the length

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• Fig. 1.1 and 1.2 shows the initial configuration of the specimen before testing and after
fracture.
• For conventional stress and conventional strain the calculation is done as follows.

• In the Figure. 1.3 the changes in the length and diameter are shown with stepwise increase in the
external load.

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• It can be seen from the plots of σ- ɛ for convention stress - conv strain Fig. 1.4 and True
Stress - True Strain Fig. 1.5 curves that True Stress -True Strain curve shows continuous
increase.
• The True Stress values are larger than conv stress values as the decrease in diameter
(decrease in area) increases the stress value.
• Like wise true strain values will be higher than the conventional strain values. Fig. 1. 6
shows the comparative stress strain curve for both conventional (2) and True σ- ɛ
(1) values

TRUE - STRESS CONV. STRESS - TRUE STRAIN CONV. STRAIN

RELATIONSHIP

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CONCEPT OF FLOW STRESS

• The stress required for metal to plastically deform or make the metal flow to any given strain
can be easily obtained from the true stress- true strain curve.
• Since the true stress- true strain curve gives an idea about how the metal can flow plastically,
it is referred to as “Flow Curve”
• Now consider the stress-strain curve for a metal from above the Y.P (yield point)
• i.e., from the start of plastic flow to the max. load at which the metal begins to neck down (B
- C)
• Taking Log values of σ and ɛ from B to C, stress-strain curve (a straight line curve) can be
plotted.
• If this straight line is extended back, it will intercept the σ axis at D
• Let ‘n’ be the slope of the line which represents strain hardening portion BC of the stress-
strain curve. This is referred to as strain hardening coefficient.

• Let the straight line BC cut the σ-axis at D at the origin.

• log 𝜎 be the intercept as shown in the figure 1.7.
log 𝜎 = log 𝜎 + 𝑛 log 𝜖
equation for a straight line- (stress at any point on the line)
log 𝜎 = log 𝜎 + log 𝜖
log 𝜎 = log(𝜎 × 𝜖 )
𝝈 = 𝝈𝒐 × 𝝐 𝒏
This is called as Flow Stress equation and the straight line is called the flow curve

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GENERALIZED HOOKE'S LAW

• Consider a bar subjected to uniaxial loading,
• In an uniaxial loading condition, it is assumed in general that the axial stress (𝜎 ) a is
proportional to the axial strain (𝜖), Within the limit of proportionality.
𝜎∝ ∈
𝜎= 𝐸∈
• Where, E - Constant of proportionality called as Young's modulus.

• As the length of the member is increased, the diameter reduces and there will be lateral
strain also.
• There exists a relation between Lateral strain and Longitudinal strain which is referred to
as poisson’s ratio. It is a material constant.

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STRESS TENSOR

• Passing through a point in a body many planes may be drawn.

• The resultant forces acting on these planes are the same.
• Since the areas and inclination of these planes are different, the stresses on these planes are
different.
• In order to describe the stress completely one has to specify the magnitude, direction sense
and also the surface on which it acting.
• Hence stress is generally referred to as “Tensor” or “Stress Tensor”.
• On a body there will be 3 direct stresses and 6 shear stresses acting.
• In tensor notation, these can be expressed by the tensor 𝜎 𝑜𝑟 𝜏
• Where i=x,y,z and j=x,y,z

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The principal stresses are 𝝈𝟏 , 𝝈𝟐 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝝈𝟑 can be calculated as

𝜎 −𝐼 𝜎 +𝐼 𝜎 −𝐼 = 0
The stress invariants 𝐼 , 𝐼 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 are given by,
𝐼 =𝜎 +𝜎 +𝜎
𝐼 =𝜎 𝜎 +𝜎 𝜎 +𝜎 𝜎 −𝜏 −𝜏 −𝜏
𝐼 =𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 −𝜎 𝜏 −𝜎 𝜏 −𝜎 𝜏 + 2𝜏 𝜏 𝜏

YIELD CRITERIA

• In a metal subjected to deformation process, a combination of stresses will exist at any

point within the stressed region.
• It is important to know at what state of stress elastic strain ceases and plastic strain starts.
Metal will start yielding when yield stress (𝝈𝒐 ) is reached
• At yield stress, the metal will plastically deform by slip and twin formation.
• Thus, for any state of stress, it is necessary to determine the effective stress (𝜎 ) which
can be compared with yield stress (𝜎 ) of the metal
The two commonly used important yield criteria are:
a) Tresca’s yield criterion or maximum-shear-stress criterion
b) Von Mises’ yield criterion or maximum-shear-strain energy or distortion energy criterion

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These yield criteria are based on certain assumptions, such as:

1) The metals are homogeneous and isotropic (i.e., the properties are same in all directions).
2) The yield stress is same in both tension and compression.
3) Pure hydrostatic pressure does not initiate yielding.

A) TRESCA’S YIELD CRITERION OR MAXIMUM-SHEAR-STRESS CRITERION

• This is also termed maximum shear stress criterion.

• According to his criterion, plastic flow (yielding) occurs when the maximum shear stress
exceeds a critical value.
• As we know the maximum shear stress is equal to half the difference between he minimum
and the maximum principal stress,
• Tresca’s criterion can be given by the relation
𝝈 𝝈
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏 𝟑 ≥ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝒌 = 𝝉𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 ------(Eqn. 1)
𝟐

• Where, 𝜎 > 𝜎 > 𝜎

• That means, as per this criterion, yielding has no influence of the intermediate principal
stress, which is not correct. However, this stress value is just about 15% less than the other
correct criterion (Von Mises).

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𝝈𝟏 𝝈𝟑
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ≥ 𝒌 = 𝝉𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 -----(Eqn. 1)
𝟐
Where, 𝜎 > 𝜎 > 𝜎

In the case of uniaxial tension,

𝜎 = 𝜎 , 𝜎 = 𝜎 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏 =𝜏

Substituting in (Eqn. 1)
𝝈𝟎
𝝉𝟎 = -----(Eqn. 2)
𝟐
On comparing (Eqn. 1) and (Eqn. 2)
𝜏 = =𝜏 =

⸫ Tresca’s Criterion is, 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟑 = 𝝈𝟎 ------ (Eqn.3)

For a state of pure shear,

𝜎 = 𝑘, 𝜎 = −𝑘, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 = 0
Substitute in Eqn.(3) Hence Tresca’s Criterion for failure will be,
𝒌+𝒌 =𝜎
𝝈𝟎 = 𝟐𝒌
𝝈𝟎
𝒌=
𝟐
Since 𝜎 can be easily obtained (by tension test) it is easy to determine the critical value by
this criterion.
Thus, Tresca’s criterion can be expressed as,
𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈 𝟑 ≥ 𝝈 𝟎 (𝝈𝟏 > 𝝈𝟐 > 𝝈𝟑 ) ------ (Eqn.4)

Figure shows the Tresca’s criterion in a 2-dimensional state of stress (i.e., 𝜎 = 0).

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B) VON MISES’ YIELD CRITERION OR MAXIMUM-SHEAR-STRAIN ENERGY

• This is also termed maximum shear strain energy criterion or distortion energy
criterion.
• According to this, yielding occurs when the work of deformation per unit volume through
the system of stress exceeds a critical value.
• Mathematically
(𝜎 − 𝜎 ) + (𝜎 − 𝜎 ) + (𝜎 − 𝜎 ) ≥ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑪-----Eqn.(1)

• Simple tension can be used to determine the constant C, since C is same for all systems of
stress.
In uniaxial tension,
𝜎 =𝜎 , 𝜎 =𝜎 =0

Substitute in (Eqn. 1)
(𝜎 − 0) + (0 − 0) + (0 − 𝜎 ) = 𝐶
2 𝜎 = 𝐶 -----(Eqn.2)

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On comparing (Eqn. 1) and (Eqn. 2) Von Mises’ criterion can be written as

(𝜎 − 𝜎 ) + (𝜎 − 𝜎 ) + (𝜎 − 𝜎 ) ≥ 2 𝜎
(𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝝈𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑 )𝟐 + (𝝈𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏 )𝟐 = 𝟐 𝝈𝟎 𝟐 -----Eqn.(3)
𝟏
𝝈𝟎 = [(𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝝈𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑 )𝟐 + (𝝈𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏 )𝟐 ]𝟏⁄𝟐
√𝟐

Eqn.(3) is the von Mises’ yield criterion.

In pure shear,

𝜎 = 𝑘, 𝜎 = −𝑘, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 = 0
Von Mises’ yield criterion Eqn.(3) can be written as
(𝜎 − 𝜎 ) + (𝜎 − 𝜎 ) + (𝜎 − 𝜎 ) = 2 𝜎
(𝑘 − 0) + (0 + 𝑘) + (−𝑘 − 𝑘) = 2 𝜎
(𝑘) + (𝑘) + (−2𝑘) = 2 𝜎
6𝑘 = 2 𝜎
𝟔𝒌𝟐 = 𝟐 𝝈𝟎 𝟐 -----Eqn.(4)
Substitute Eqn.(4) in Eqn.(3)
(𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝝈𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑 )𝟐 + (𝝈𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏 )𝟐 = 𝟐 𝝈𝟎 𝟐 = 𝟔𝒌𝟐 -----Eqn.(5)
Using, Von Mises’ criterion, Substitute 𝜎 = 0 in Eqn.(3)
(𝜎 − 𝜎 ) + (𝜎 − 𝜎 ) + (𝜎 − 𝜎 ) = 2 𝜎
(𝜎 − 0) + (0 − 𝜎 ) + (𝜎 − 𝜎 ) = 2 𝜎
𝜎 +𝜎 + (𝜎 +𝜎 − 2𝜎 𝜎 ) = 2 𝜎
2𝜎 + 2𝜎 − 2𝜎 𝜎 = 2 𝜎
𝜎 +𝜎 −𝜎 𝜎 =𝜎
𝜎 =𝜎 +𝜎 − 𝜎 𝜎 -------Eqn.(6)
This is the equation of an ellipse, whose major semi axis is √2 . 𝜎 and minor semi axis
is 2⁄3 . 𝜎
The plot of this equation (6) is termed as Von Mises’ yield locus.

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COMPARISON OF FRACTURE CRITERIA

• Figure illustrates the comparison between the two important failure or yield criteria the von
Mises’ and the Tresca’s.
• It is seen that the von Mises’ criterion is an ellipse, which is the mathematical
representation for a biaxial plane-stress condition (i.e., 𝜎 = 0)
• On the same lines, the plot for Tresca’s criterion is a hexagonal plot. In this figure the
Tresca and von Miser criteria are super imposed for the same yield value of 𝜎
• We can notice that the maximum differences in predictions of yielding are along the
loading paths ∝= -1, 1/2 and 2.

For pure shear state, the Tresca’s and von Mises’ criteria will give different results.
IN PURE SHEAR,
𝜎 = 𝑘, 𝜎 = −𝑘, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 = 0
a) Tresca’s Yield Criterion
𝑘+𝑘 = 𝜎
𝜎 = 2𝑘
𝑘= ------Eqn. (1)

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b) Von Mises’ yield criterion

6𝑘 = 2 𝜎
1
𝑘= ×𝜎
√3
𝑘= × ------Eqn. (2)
√

• From equations (1) and (2) it is clear that the difference in yield stress between the two criteria
𝟐
is = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓
√𝟑

• That means, von Mises’ criterion needs 15% higher critical shear stress to initiate yielding as
compared to that of Tresca’s criterion.
• Design engineers mostly use Tresca’s criterion for its simplicity, but the von Mises’ criterion
is most suitable for ductile materials, which is in best agreement with experimental
results.

APPLICATION TO TENSILE TESTING

• Tensile testing is an important method used in metal forming to determine the mechanical
properties of a material, particularly its strength, ductility, and toughness.
• This information is vital for engineers and manufacturers to ensure the safe and efficient use
of the material in various applications.
• During a tensile test, a sample of the material is subjected to an axial load, which causes it to
deform until it eventually fractures.
• The load and deformation are recorded throughout the test, and the resulting stress-strain
curve can be used to determine the material's mechanical properties.

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There are several key parameters that can be obtained from a tensile test, including:
a) Ultimate tensile strength (UTS): This is the maximum stress that the material can
withstand before it fractures. It is an important parameter for determining the material's
strength.
b) Yield strength: This is the stress at which the material begins to deform plastically. It is
an important parameter for determining the material's ductility and work-hardening
behavior.
c) Young’s modulus: This is a measure of the material's stiffness, or how much it resists
deformation under load.
d) Elongation: This is the amount of deformation that the material undergoes before it
fractures. It is an important parameter for determining the material's ductility and
toughness.

 By understanding these mechanical properties, engineers and manufacturers can design

products and processes that are optimized for the specific material being used.
 For example, if a material has a high UTS and low ductility, it may be better suited for
applications where strength is more important than deformability, such as in structural
components.
 Conversely, if a material has a low UTS and high ductility, it may be better suited for
applications where deformability is more important than strength, such as in sheet metal
forming.
 Overall, tensile testing is a valuable tool for understanding the mechanical behavior of
metals and other materials, and it plays a critical role in the design and production of a wide
range of products and structures.

VARIABLES IN METAL FORMING

• In metal working processes, the forming forces required and the output -of the process
depend on various factors.
• Certain factors/variable contribute to the improved processes, while some of them affect
the process.
• The important variables/factors which affect the metal working operations are as follows:
1) Strain rate or deformation velocity
2) Temperature
3) Grain size and Microstructure
4) Friction
5) Lubrication

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STRAIN RATE OR DEFORMATION VELOCITY

• Strain rate or deformation velocity has an improved effect on metal forming operations.
• The main improvement is the increase in flow stress with strain rate.
• Another important effect is the improved lubrication at the tool-work interface, with good
film lubrication. However, the strain rate has these positive effects only when combined
with hot forming operations.
• The working stress values increase with reducing working temperatures.
• Thus, while forming at higher temperatures, the stress values are lower for a given strain
rate.

STRAIN RATE & STRAIN RATE SENSITIVITY

Strain rate is defined as,
𝒅𝜺
𝜺̇ =
𝒅𝒕
Strain rate is expressed in terms of 𝑠 , i.e., per second
For a given temperature and at constant temperature the flow stress increases with strain rate
(Fig. 3.3)

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• The relation between flow stress and strain rate is given by

𝝈𝟎 = 𝑪 × 𝜺̇ 𝒎

• where, C = the strength constant and depends on strain, temperature and material.
• m = strain-rate sensitivity of the flow stress
• For most metals at room temperature the value of m varies between 0 to 0.03.
• As the temperature and strains increase, for certain metals the values of m increase, and can
reach up to 0.85.
• The extreme case being, m = 1 for a Newtonian viscous solid, such as hot glass, which
can be drawn from the melt into glass fibres without any necking action.
• The extreme case being , m = 1 for a Newtonian viscous solid, such as hot glass, which
can be drawn from the melt into glass fibres without any necking action.
• The values of m are obtained from the slope of log-log plots of σ versus ɛ (typically as
shown in Fig. 3-3).
• Typical ranges of m for metal working operations are:

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• The magnitude of strain-rate sensitivity (m) has a significant effect on the necking process
in tensile loading.
• Higher m delays the necking action and the material can be stretched further before
fracture.
• Materials with m in the range of 0.3 to 1.0 undergo negligible or nil necking.
• In practice the strain rates (velocity of deformations) are of the order of 1 to 10 m/s for
normal mechanical working and testing, while it is about 50 to 200 m/s in high velocity
forming operations, such as explosive forming.

TEMPERATURE IN METAL FORMING

The temperature of the work piece in forming, in addition to its initial temperature, is influenced
by the following:
a) the initial temperature of the tools,
b) heat generated in plastic deformation and friction, and
c) the heat transfer between material, dies/tools and the working environment.
The temperature is maximum at the work-tool interface due to friction. However, the
temperature gradually reduces inside the work piece and the tool.

Temperatures in Hot Working

• In hot working, the maximum working temperature is generally about 50°C below its
melting point. (material is initially heated to above its recrystallization temperature)
• Working close to the melting point leads to excessive oxidation and formation of scales,
and hence related defects in the products.
• Generally, hot-working operations are not performed in a single pass. Usually, a number of
passes are used to finish a product.
• In all the passes the temperature is maintained above the minimum working temperature.
• Thus, there will be continuous recrystallisation, accompanied with grain growth.
• To obtain a fine-gained structure in -the product , the working temperature for the final or
finishing pass is kept at a temperature where the grain growth is almost nil.
• This temperature is termed the finishing temperature and is a few degrees above the
minimum recrystallisation temperature.

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Temperatures in Cold Working

• Cold working of a metal is carried out below its recrystallisation temperature and usually
at room temperatures.
• In cold working of metals, due to crystal deformation and formation of internal stresses, it
is always accompanied with an increase in hardness/ brittleness and a decrease in ductility.

• If continued without reconditioning the deformed crystal and with out relieving the
internal stresses, the metal either fractures and/or causes damage to the forming system.
• This, necessitates the stress relieving and recrystallisation in the cold worked metal.
• Thus, the cold worked metals are intermittently subjected to annealing operations.
• The changes in properties with cold working and after annealing are graphically illustrated
in Fig. 3-1.

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• We can see that the strength/hardness values increase while ductility drops with increasing
number of cold work passes (Fig. 3-la).
• When the cold worked metal is annealed, the ductility improves, while the strength and
hardness decrease (Fig. 3-1b).
• The effect of increasing temperature on stress-strain curves is shown in Fig. 3-2.
• As can be seen from the figure, temperature increases the ductility and toughness of a
metal, while it reduces the yield strength and the Young's modulus.
• We can see that the strength/hardness values increase while ductility drops with increasing
number of cold work passes (Fig. 3-la).
• When the cold worked metal is annealed, the ductility improves, while the strength and
hardness decrease (Fig. 3-1b).
• The effect of increasing temperature on stress-strain curves is shown in Fig. 3-2.
• As can be seen from the figure, temperature increases the ductility and toughness of a
metal, while it reduces the yield strength and the Young's modulus.

THE COMPARISON OF HOT WORKING VS COLD WORKING

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EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON FORMING OPERATIONS

Temperature has both desirable and undesirable effects on forming operations.

At higher temperature of metal, the desirable effects are:
1) Higher ductility: Higher deformation temperature increases the ductility of the metal
being formed, and hence higher reduction per pass is possible.
2) Deformation force: As the ductility is higher at high temperatures, the deformation force
required is much lower compared to cold working.

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3) Grain refining: The distorted grains undergo recovery and recrystallisation at a faster
rate. Also, continuous forming leads to grain refinement.
4) Annealing: Since the working is above recrystallisation temperature, the deformed grains
get recrystallized after plastic deformation and the metal remains in annealed condition.
Hence, hot working does not require intermittent annealing treatment unlike cold
working.
5) Internal stresses: Usually, residual stresses are induced in plastically deformed
structures. However, in hot working there is no problem of internal stresses because of
continuous recovery and recrystallisation.

At higher temperature of metal, the undesirable effects are:

1) Surface oxidation: At higher temperatures, due to surface oxidation metal scale is
formed in steel and copper alloys Scaling leads to loss of metal and induces surface
defects and inclusion defects in many deformation operations.
2) Lubrication: At high temperatures, lubrication is always a problem. Hence, most hot
working operations are· performed in dry condition.
3) Tool life: Due to heating, the die becomes more prone to higher wear, resulting in
reduced die life. The presence of abrasive scales and lack of lubrication, further enhance
die wear. ·
4) Surface finish: For various reasons, the surface finish and gauge control are very poor in
hot working. The contributing factors include surface scales, lack of lubrication and
worn out tooling. ·
5) Work hardening: The work -hardening effect is desired to improve both the strength and
surface finish of the product. This is not possible in hot working processes.

At lower temperature of the metal all the above-mentioned effects take place in reversed
manner.

METAL WORKING PROCESSES:

Fundamentals of metal working
• Metalworking is the process of manipulating metal to create new products or modify
existing ones.
• There are a variety of techniques and tools used in metalworking, but the following are
some fundamental concepts:
a) Material selection:
b) Cutting:
c) Joining:
d) Forming:
e) Surface finishing:
f) Safety:
g) Maintenance:

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• By mastering these fundamentals, a metalworker can create high-quality, functional

products with precision and efficiency.
• Each fundamental is essential in its own way, and a thorough understanding of each can
help a metalworker achieve their goals.

• Metalworking is the process of manipulating metal to create new products or modify

existing ones. There are a variety of techniques and tools used in metalworking, but the
following are some fundamental concepts:
• Material selection: Choosing the right metal for a particular application is crucial.
Metals have different properties, such as strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance,
which will affect their performance in a given environment. For example, a metal used in
a marine environment may need to have high corrosion resistance to avoid degradation
from saltwater exposure.
• Cutting: Cutting is the process of removing material from a metal workpiece using
cutting tools such as saws, shears, and lathes. Each type of cutting tool is designed for a
specific task and can produce different results. For example, saws are typically used for
straight cuts, while lathes are used for shaping cylindrical objects.
• Joining: Joining methods are used to connect two pieces of metal together. Common
techniques include welding, brazing, and soldering. Each technique has its own
advantages and disadvantages, and the choice depends on the application and the specific
properties of the metals being joined.
• Forming: Forming is the process of shaping metal into a desired shape. Techniques
include bending, Rolling, Forging, Extrusion, and Drawing, etc. Each technique has its
own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice depends on the application and the
specific properties of the metal being formed.
• Surface finishing: Surface finishing is the process of improving the appearance and/or
performance of a metal surface. Techniques include sanding, polishing, and plating. Each
technique has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice depends on the
application and the specific properties of the metal being finished.
• Safety: Metalworking can be dangerous, so it is essential to take appropriate safety
measures. This includes wearing protective clothing, using proper tools and equipment,
and working in a well-ventilated area. For example, metalworking tools can produce
sharp metal shards or emit harmful fumes, so protective eyewear and a respirator may be
necessary.
• Maintenance: Metalworking tools and equipment require regular maintenance to ensure
their proper functioning and longevity. This includes cleaning, lubricating, and
sharpening tools. Proper maintenance can help prevent accidents and increase the lifespan
of tools and equipment.
• By mastering these fundamentals, a metalworker can create high-quality, functional
products with precision and efficiency. Each fundamental is essential in its own way, and
a thorough understanding of each can help a metalworker achieve their goals.

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INTRODUCTION TO ROLLING

• In metal working, rolling is the process of reducing the thickness or changing the cross-
section of a workpiece by means of compressive forces exerted by a set of rotating rolls.
Figure shows a simple rolling process.
• In operation, as the workpiece passes between the two constantly rotating rolls, the
workpiece is subjected to high compressive stresses from the squeezing action of the rolls
on the workpiece.
• In addition, the workpiece is also subjected to surface shear stresses as a result of the friction
between the rolls and the workpiece metal.

Fig. Rolling process

• As a result, the workpiece is plastically deformed to the desired shape. Flat products are
produced by cylindrical shaped rolls, while profiles are produced by grooved or shaped
rolls.
• Apart from reducing the thickness of the work, the rolls also act to feed the work material
as they rotate in opposite directions to each other.
• Rolling is the most widely used metal forming process due to its high production rates and
close control of the final product. Rolling operations can be performed either in hot
condition (above recrystallization temperature) or cold condition (below recrystallization
temperature).

CLASSIFICATION OF ROLLING PROCESS

Based on the working temperature, rolling is classified into two types:

1) Hot rolling
2) Cold rolling.

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1) HOT ROLLING

• In hot rolling, the workpiece material is initially heated to above its recrystallization
temperature and then passed between shaped rollers to obtain the desired product.
• Higher temperatures help the coarse-grained, brittle, and porous structure of the ingot (or
cast metal) to break down into a wrought structure with finer grain size as shown in figure.
• Fine grain Structure imparts better strength and toughness (ductility) to the workpiece
material. It is important to note that as the material is worked, its temperature must be
monitored to make sure it remains above the recrystallization temperature. If the
temperature drops down below this temperature, the material must be reheated before
rolling is continued.
• The final finishing temperature of the workpiece is usually 50 - 100°C above the
recrystallization temperature.

Fig. Grain structure in Hot rolling

Advantages of hot rolling
• Higher working temperatures results in finer grain structure, which in turn imparts better
strength and toughness (ductility) to the work material.
• Larger deformation is possible at higher temperatures.
• Complex shapes can be achieved efficiently.
• Forces and power requirements for deformation are low due to high temperature working
conditions.
Disadvantages of hot rolling
• Heating the workpiece material above its recrystallization temperature is somewhat
expensive. Also non-uniform heating temperatures result in cracking and tearing of the
rolled part.

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• Surface oxidation occurs at higher temperatures resulting in scale formation on the finished
product. The scale thus formed has to be removed via pickling or the smooth clean surface
process in order to eliminate defects in subsequently formed mill products.
• Non-uniform cooling of the work material will induce residual stresses.

2) COLD ROLLING.

• Cold rolling is usually carried out below the recrystallization temperature (usually at room
product with deformed temperature) of the work material.
• The starting material for cold rolling is usually a pickled hot rolled work, however in case
of certain copper alloys, the material is directly from the cast state.
• Cold rolling process imparts desirable metal qualities that cannot be obtained by hot
rolling.
• Good surface finish, scale-free surface, close dimensional tolerance, and better mechanical
properties (hardness, elastic limit, etc.) can be achieved with cold rolling. However the
ductility of the metal decreases due to strain hardening, thus making the metal more brittle.
• The structural changes occurring during cold rolling is illustrated in figure. The grain
structure consists of deformed elongated grains and is not refined.

Fig. Grain structure in cold rolling

Advantages of cold rolling
• Workpiece need not be heated.
• Free from surface scale formation due to low temperature processing.
• Cold rolling results in loss of ductility and increase in strength and hardness of the rolled
metal.
• Results in good surface finish.
Disadvantages of cold rolling
• Ductility of the metal decreases due to strain hardening, thus making the metal more brittle.

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• Cold rolling cannot reduce the thickness of a workpiece as much as hot rolling in a single
pass. For large reductions more number of passes is required to obtain the final thickness.
Since the ductility decreases, some form of heat treatment (annealing) is necessary from
time to time during the rolling process to remove the undesirable effects of cold working
and to increase the workability of the metal.
• Internal (residual) stresses are induced in the cold rolled product which has to be removed
by heat treatment process.

ROLLING VARIABLES

The three principal parameters or variables in rolling are discussed as follows:

1) Roll diameter
2) Friction
3) Effect of Front & Back Tension

1) Roll diameter
• The roll diameter is an important factor as it directly dictates the maximum possible
reduction in the work thickness that can be achieved.
• However, both rolling load and length of arc of contact of the rolls increase with
increasing roll diameter.
• This results in higher frictional forces leading to higher energy & power requirements for
rolling.
• With small diameter rolls supported with suitable back-up rolls, it is possible to produce a
greater reduction in the thickness of the rolled product.
2) Friction
• Although friction is necessary in pulling the workpiece into the roll gap, its presence in
extreme conditions influences the quality and economy of the process.
• High friction means high rolling load and hence more power requirements. Also there is a
great tendency in edge cracking of the work material.

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• Since friction varies from point to point along the arc contact of the roll, it is assumed to
have a constant value during the process. For cold rolling with lubricants, coefficient of
friction can range from 0.05 - 0.1, while for hot rolling, the value ranges from 0.2 up to
the sticking condition.
3) Effect of Front & Back Tension
• The effect of longitudinal tension on the work can minimize the rolling force required to
reduce the thickness of the work.
• Tensions in rolling can be applied either at the entry, designated as back tension (𝒃 ),
or at the exit, designated as front tension 𝒇
• Front tension may be created by controlling the torque on the coiler (delivery reel) around
which the rolled sheet is coiled, while back tension may be produced by means of a
braking system in the uncoiler that controls the speed of the uncoiler relative to the roll
speed.
• The higher the applied front or back tension, the lower is the rolling force, the less
stretching the mill experiences, and the thinner the strip is.
• A study of the effect of sheet tension has shown that back tension is about twice as
effective in reducing the rolling load compared to front tension.

ANALYSIS OF BULK FORMING IN ROLLING PROCESS

Angle of Bite or Angle of Contact ()

The angle between the entrance to the rolls (entrance plane) and the center line of the rolls as
shown in figure 4.24 is called the angle of bite or angle of contact ().

To derive the limiting condition for unaided entry of a work into the rolls

 In rolling, the rolls pull the material into the roll gap by a frictional force between the
workpiece and the rotating rolls.

Figure 4.24 Angle of bite or angle of contact

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 From figure 4.24, the horizontal component of the normal force is 𝑃 sin 𝛼 , and the
horizontal component of the friction force is 𝐹 cos 𝛼
 The terms 𝑃 is the radial force acting on the work metal, while F is the tangential
frictional force acting on the work metal.
 For a workpiece to enter into the roll gap, the horizontal component of the frictional force
which acts toward the roll gap must be equal to or greater than the horizontal component
of the normal force which acts away from the roll gap. limiting condition for unaided
entry of a slab into the roll is given by
𝐹 cos 𝛼 = 𝑃 sin 𝛼
= = tan 𝛼 ----------(1)
But 𝐹 = µ 𝑃
Therefore equation (1) becomes
µ
= tan 𝛼
µ = tan 𝛼
Thus the workpiece cannot be drawn into the rolls if the tangent of the contact angle (α) exceeds
the friction coefficient (µ)

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INTRODUCTION TO EXTRUSION
 Extrusion is a metal forming process in which a block of metal (or billet) is reduced in
cross-section by forcing it to flow through a die of desired cross-section under high
pressure.
 Extrusion can be carried out in either hot or cold conditions, however most metals are hot
extruded due to large amount of forces required for extrusion. Figure 4.33 shows the
principle of extrusion process.

Figure 4.33 Extrusion of rod

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 The process begins by heating the work metal (billet) to suitable temperatures
and is then loaded into the container in the press (machine).
 A dummy block is placed behind the billet where the ram then presses the billet to
push it out of the die.
 The billet takes the shape of the die as it passes through it. The process is similar to
the squeezing of a tooth paste out of a tube. When the pressure is applied at the
closed end, the paste is forced to flow through the open end, accepting the round
shape of the opening as it emerges.
 If the opening is flattened, the paste will emerge as a flat ribbon. Solid round,
rectangular, L-shape, T-shape, Tubes, and many other different shapes can be
produced from extrusion process.

TYPES OF EXTRUSION
Extrusion process is broadly classified into four types. These include:
1) Direct extrusion
2) Indirect extrusion
3) Cold extrusion or Impact extrusion,
4) Hydrostatic extrusion
Direct Extrusion
 Direct extrusion, also called forward extrusion is a type of extrusion process wherein the
flow of metal through the die is in the same direction as the movement of the ram. It is
one of the most common type of extrusion process. Figure 4.32 illustrates direct extrusion
process.
 The process begins by heating the work metal (billet) to suitable temperatures and then
loaded into the container in the press (machine). A dummy block is placed behind the
billet where the ram (or plunger) then presses the billet to push it out of the die. The billet
takes the shape of the die as it passes through it.
 During direct extrusion, metal flow and forces required are affected by the friction
between the work piece and the container walls.
 Particularly in hot forming at higher temperatures, oxide scale build-up on the outer
surfaces of the work metal can negatively influence the operation.
 For these reasons, it is common manufacturing practice to place a dummy block ahead of
the ram. The dummy block is of slightly smaller diameter than the chamber and
workpiece.
 As the extrusion proceeds the outermost surface of the work is not extruded and remains
in the chamber. This material will form a thin shell called skull, which can be removed
later by a suitable process.
 Direct extrusion finds application in the manufacture of solid rods, bars, hollow tubes
and various sections according to the design and shape of the die.

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Figure 4.32 Direct extrusion

Indirect Extrusion (Backward Extrusion)

 Indirect extrusion, also called backward extrusion or reverse extrusion is a type of
extrusion process, wherein the work metal flows in the direction opposite to the ram
movement as shown in figure 4.34.
 In indirect extrusion, the billet remains stationary while the die is pushed into the billet by
the hollow ram through which the extrusion takes place.
 The billet and the container do not experience any displacement, and hence there are no
frictional forces between the Work and the container walls.
 Thus the force required and hence the power for extrusion is less than that required for
direct extrusion.
 However the process has certain limitations, as the tooling and machine set-up are more
complicated; hollow rams are not strong and rigid. and also the support of the length of
the extruded product in the hollow ram is difficult.

Figure 4.34 Indirect Extrusion

Cold or Impact Extrusion

 Impact extrusion is a type of extrusion process in which a slug or a small shot of solid
cold metal placed in a shallow die cavity is formed by the impact action of a rapidly
moving punch that forces the metal through the die, or back around the punch.

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 Impact extrusion is most often performed cold; however some metals like lead, tin,
aluminum, and copper.
 Figurc 4.35 illustrates the backward type of impact extrusion, where the work metal
flows in a direction opposite to the direction of the punch.
 In operation. a cold metal slug (workpiece) of suitable size is placed in the die cavity
(mould), and struck by a punch great force causing the work metal to rapidly flow into
position in an instant.
 Since the die is a closed part, the deformed work metal is forced upwards through the gap
between the punch and the die. The gap dictates the thickness of the desired part.
 The other type of impact extrusion is based on the forward extrusion as illustrated in
figure 4.36.
 The work metal flows in the direction of the punch. The results of impact extrusion are
accuracy, precision, tighter tolerance limits, and low cost of production. However, tooling
must have sufficient impact resistance, fatigue resistance, and strength for withstanding
the heavy forces involved in the process.
 Also, when designing an impact extrusion process, it important that the part geometry be
symmetrical about the punch. It is essential to the proper forming of the extruded
component, that the punch delivers a precise blow concentric to the work.

Figure 4.35 Backward impact extrusion Figure 4.36 Forward impact extrusion

Hydrostatic Extrusion
 Hydrostatic extrusion is a type of extrusion process in which the workpiece is formed by
the action of a liquid pressurized medium on the work metal, instead of the direct
application of the load through a ram. The process is a form of direct extrusion and is
illustrated in figure 4.37.
 In hydrostatic extrusion the workpiece is held in a sealed chamber surrounded by
pressurized fluid (Example Castor Oil R68).

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 The sealed chamber is a cylindrical shaped container that accommodates the ram(plunger),
die, billet (workpiece), and the pressurized fluid. In operation, one end of the workpiece is
made tapered so as to fit through the die opening thereby creating a seal for liquid leakage.
 The container is filled with suitable quantity of pressurized fluid and then the ram is
brought into the container to begin the extrusion process.
 When the plunger is forced into the container, the pressure of the fluid increases and
reaches a certain value, which in turn pushes the billet through the die extruding the part.
The shape of the part is similar to the shape of the die cavity.
 The major advantage of hydrostatic extrusion is the negligible friction between the work
metal and the container wall, due to the work metal being completely surrounded by the
fluid medium.
 This also means effective lubrication between the work surfaces which results in good
surface finish and dimensional accuracy of the extruded part. Another advantage lies in the
increased ductility of the extruded part due to the application of high pressures; this enables
brittle materials to be extruded easier.
 However, the major disadvantage lies in the cost of the equipment and the extrusion speed
being uncontrollable.
 The billet must be initially prepared by tapering one end of the workpiece so as to match
the die entry angle. This is needed to form a tight seal at the beginning of the cycle. Also,
the practical limit on fluid pressure is around 1.7 GPa only, due to the restrictions in
maintaining the strength of the container and also the possibility of the fluid getting
solidified at higher pressures.

4.37 Hydrostatic extrusion

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ANALYSIS OF BULK FORMING IN EXTRUSION PROCESS

EXPRESSION FOR EXTRUSION FORCE

• The ram force is dependent on a number of process variables. Hence, it is very difficult to
compute an exact theoretical ram force.
• However, the extrusion force based on the yield strength of the material can be estimated
• Note that, in practice the actual ram force is much higher (about 50%) than the theoretical
value
• Consider an ideal extrusion process shown in Fig. 7-18, in which a billet is
extruded into a -cylindrical rod through a square die.

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Numerical on EXTRUSION FORCE

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INTRODUCTION TO FORGING

 Forging is a type of manufacturing process, wherein a metal is heated to its plastic state
(above recrystallization temperature) and then deformed to the desired shape and size by
the application of compressive forces through a hammer, press, or rolls.
 If the compressive force is applied manually by using specific tools, it is called Hand
Forging or Smith Forging, and if the compressive force is applied using machines, it is
called Power Forging.
CLASSIFICATION OF FORGING PROCESS
Forging process can be classified into three broad categories as follows:
1) Open die forging
2) Impression die forging
3) Closed die forging (Flashless forging)
OPEN DIE FORGING

 Open die forging, also called as Smith 's forging or flat die forging is carried out between
flat dies that do not enclose the workpiece as shown in figure 4.6.
 The dies are usually flat in shape, but some have simple contoured shapes like round,
concave, or convex surface for specialized operations.
 The heated workpiece metal is placed on a bottom die, which may be a anvil or press bed,
while the top die attached to a reciprocating ram strikes repeatedly to deform the
workpiece.

Figure 4.6 Open die forging

The operator needs to orient and position the workpiece before each stroke of the ram in order to
get the desired shape and size. Secondary operations like machining may be carried out suitably
in order to obtain the desired shape, size and finish.

Advantages of open die forging

a) Process is relatively simple.

b) Makes use of simple, inexpensive dies.
c) Forged components exhibit good strength characteristics.

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d) Suitable for large sized components that cannot be accommodated in closed dies.
e) Preferred when the number of components required is too small to justify the cost of
closed dies.

Disadvantages of open die forging

a) Process is limited to simple shapes.

b) Skilled operator is required for proper manipulation of the workpiece during forging.
c) Difficult to maintain close tolerances.
d) Low production rate.
e) Machining to final shape is necessary.

IMPRESSION DIE FORGING

 Impression die forging makes use of matched dies with contoured impression in each die
as shown in figure 4.7(a).
 When the two die halves close, the impressions form a cavity whose shape is similar to
that of the desired product.
 The two die halves do not fully close with each other, instead designed with a small gap
between them. Refer figure 4.7(b). This gap is referred as flash gutter, and its function is
to accomodate the excess metal during forging refer.

Figure 4.7 Impression die forging

 In impression die forging, the hot workpiece metal is placed in the bottom die, which is
attached to the anvil or press bed.
 The top die is attached to a reciprocating ram of the machine. The ram falls down causing
the top die to force the heated metal to fill the contours of the die blocks.
 The ram may impact the workpiece several times to ensure all of the contours are filled.
When the two dies come together for the finishing step, any excess metal present is
squeezed out Of the die cavities as a thin ribbon of metal called flash. When the forging
is completed, the flash is trimmed off suitably.

Advantages of Impression die forging

a) Suitable for small and medium sized components and in large quantities.

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b) Produces dimensionally accurate forgings.

c) Good surface finish can be obtained.
d) Excess tnetal is forced out of the die cavity as flash, thereby eliminating pressure build-
up in thc die cavity. This also improves the life of the dies.

Disadvantages of impression die forging

a) Not suitable for large sized components.
b) Initial die costs make the process suitable for mass production only.

CLOSED DIE FORGING

Closed die forging is a precision forging in which the entire volume of the work material is
enclosed within the die and no material is allowed to escape from the mould during the forging
process. As a result, no flash is formed and for this reason, the process is also called flashless
forging.

Figure 4.8 Closed die forging

In closed die forging, the workpiece is deformed between two die halves which carry the
impressions of the desired shape of the product. Refer figure 4.8. The top die is attached to a
reciprocating ram of the machine, while the bottom die is attached to the anvil or press bed of the
machine. The heated workpiece is placed in the bottom die, the ram falls down causing the top
die to force the heated metal to fill the contours of the die blocks. The ram may impact the
workpeice several times to ensure all of the contours are filled.

Advantages of closed die forging

 Suitable for small and medium sized components and in large quantities.
 Close dimensional tolerances can be achieved.
 Good surface finish can be obtained.

Disadvantages of closed die forging

 Not suitablc for large sized components.
 Initial die costs make it suitable for mass production only.

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 Demands rigorous process control, particularly in the amount of starting work material to
be used. For example, too little work material results in incomplete filling of' die cavity,
and too much material will cause a dangerous build up of forces causing the dies to fail
prematurely.

FORGING MACHINES & EQUIPMENTS

 There are different types of machines used to perform a forging operation. These
machines classified under two major categories as listed below:

 The selection of a particular machine depends on various factors like, the size and geometry
of the part to be forged, the accuracy desired, strength of the work material, temperature of
the work part, desired mechanical properties of the forged part, the sensitivity of the work
to strain rate, the number of parts to be produced, the time required, and the cost for forging
the part.

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ANALYSIS OF BULK FORMING - OPEN DIE FORGING

• A simplest example of open die forging is compression of billet between two flat die
halves which is like compression test. This also known as upsetting or upset forging.
Basically height decreases and diameter increases.
• Under ideal conditions, where there is no friction between the billet and die surfaces,
homogeneous deformation occurs. In this, the diameter increases uniformly throughout
its height.

In ideal condition, ε = ln (ho / h).

• h will be equal to hf at the end of compression,
• ε will be maximum for the whole forming.
• Also, to find the force required for forging done by using,
F = σf A
• where σf is the flow stress corresponding to ε at that stage of forming.
• A is projected area of the part including flash

In actual forging operation, the deformation will not be homogeneous as bulging

occurs because of the presence of friction at the die-billet interface. This friction opposes the
movement of billet at the surface. This is called barreling effect.
• The barreling effect will be significant as the diameter-to-height (D/h) ratio of the work part
increases, due to the greater contact area at the billet–die interface.
• Temperature will also affect the barreling phenomenon.

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• In actual forging, the accurate force evaluation is done by using,

F = Kf σf A
• By considering the effect of friction and D/h ratio.
• Where F is maximum force in the operation;
• A is projected area of the part including flash,
• σf is flow stress of the material,
• Kf is forging shape factor.
• Here,

Where,
• Kf = forging shape factor,
• μ = coefficient of friction,
• D = work piece diameter,
• h = work piece height

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Analysis of Bulk forming of Impression Die Forging and Flashless forging

• In actual forging, the accurate force evaluation is done by using,

F=K σ A
f f
• By considering the effect of friction and D/h ratio.
• Where F is maximum force in the operation;
• A is projected area of the part including flash,
• σ is flow stress of the material,
f
• K is forging shape factor.
f
• Now selecting the proper value of flow stress is difficult because the strain varies
throughout the work piece for complex shapes and hence the strength varies. Sometimes an
average strength is used.
• K is used for taking care of different shapes of parts.
f
• Table shows the typical values of K used for force calculation.
f
• In hot working, appropriate flow stress at that temperature is used.

• The above equation is applied to find the maximum force during the operation, since this
is the load that will determine the required capacity of the press used in the forging
operation.

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INTRODUCTION TO DRAWING

 Drawing, as shown in figure 4.26, is a metal forming process in which the workpiece metal
is pulled through a die, thereby reducing the cross-section of the workpiece.
 The shape of the die is similar to the shape of the desired product. Drawing is used for the
production of wires having diameter upto 2mm, rods and hollow tubes/pipes.
 The principle involved in the drawing pulling force of wires, rods and tubes are basically
the same, except the type of equipment used for drawing changes. The details regarding
the same are briefed in the following sections

Figure 4.26 Drawing

Drawing of Wires
 Wire drawing is a forming process used to produce wires having diameter up to 2 mm by
pulling the thick metal through a single die or through a series of dies with each successive
die having smaller diameter than the preceding one.
 Figure 4.27 illustrates the Bull block equipment with a single die for drawing wires.
 The equipment consists of a die generally made of tungsten carbide and a rotating draw
block that provides a continuous pull on the incoming wire.
 The starting stock of the metal is reduced in its cross-section by rolling, swaging or other
operations, so as to permit it freely to enter the cavity of the die.
 As the wire passes through the die, its diameter is reduced due to the compression force
resulting from the reaction of the metal with the die.

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 The exit wire is then pulled and clamped to the rotating draw block, which in turn pulls the
wire continuously and winds up as shown in the figure. The maximum reduction in area of
wire is quite less than 45% in one pass. In case the wire needs to be reduced to very small
diameter, multiple block machines with one die and one draw block for each reduction is
employed.

Figure 4.27 Bull block equipment

Drawing of Rods
 Rods have diameter greater than wires and as such they cannot be coiled and hence need
be drawn straight. They are usually produced with straight pull draw bench equipment as
shown in figure 4.28.
 The draw bench equipment has a single die through which the starting stock metal is fed
into the die; the reduced diameter of the rod coming out of the die is gripped tightly in the
jaws of the carriage and is pulled through a single length. The pulling force is supplied to
the carriage by means of a chain driven arrangement or by hydraulic force (for short work
lengths). The diameter of the rod reduces to a greater extent in a single draw operation.
The starting stock of the metal is initially reduced in its cross-section by rolling, swaging
or other operations, so as to permit it freely to enter the cavity of the die.

Figure 4.28 Draw bench equipment

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ANALYSIS OF BULK FORMING IN DRAWING PROCESS

The figure shows below analysis of drawing process

• True strain in wire drawing under ideal deformation (no friction and redundant work) is
given by,

Under ideal deformation, the stress required in wire drawing is given by,

In order to consider the effect of die angle and friction coefficient on the drawing stress,
Schey has proposed another equation as shown below:

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Where, Af = Final area or Final work size

σd = Stress due to drawing force

The power required for drawing is given by multiplying drawing force with exit velocity of
the workpiece

TUBE DRAWING
 This operation is used to reduce the diameter or wall thickness of the seamless tubes and pipes.
Tube drawing can be done either with or without mandrel.
 The simplest method uses no mandrel and is used for diameter reduction called as tube
sinking. But inside diameter and wall thickness cannot be controlled. So mandrel is required.

Classification of Tube drawing

The method for drawing tubes can be done in different ways as listed below:
a) Rod drawing
b) Tube drawing without mandrel (Tube sinking)
c) Tube drawing with a fixed mandrel
d) Tube drawing with a floating mandrel

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Using a fixed mandrel:

• In this case, a mandrel is attached to a long support bar to control the inside diameter and wall
thickness during the operation.
• The length of the support bar restricts the length of the tube that can be drawn.
Using a floating plug:
• As the name suggests the mandrel floats inside the tube and its shape is designed so that it
finds a suitable position in the reduction zone of the die.
• There is no length restriction in this as seen with the fixed mandrel.

DRAWING VARIABLES

A few variables that affect the drawing force in wire drawing process are briefed as follows.
a) Die angle
• For small die angles, the length of contact between the wire and the die is more and as
such frictional work will be more.

b) Friction
• In drawing, friction exists between the work and the die surface. Friction will be more for
low die angles, and reduces as the die angle is increased up to an optimum value.

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c) Reduction in c/s area per pass

• In drawing, maximum reduction in cross-sectional area per pass takes place at a point
when the draw stress is equal to the yield strength of the work material.

d) Temperature
• Temperature is also an important factor in wire drawing process. When the wire is drawn
through the die, heat is generated primarily by work of deformation (reduction) and
sliding friction at the die surface.

SLAB ANALYSIS METHOD

• This method is also termed the free-body equilibrium method , and the friction hill
method.
• In this, the flow stress is determined based on the equilibrium of forces acting on a slab of
metal being deformed.
• The term slab in this context refers to a thin imaginary slice of metal selected as a free body,
which has a slab-like shape.
• In the analysis, simple plane .strain condition (stress distribution in one direction ) is
assumed .
• Using pertinent boundary conditions, the governing equilibrium equations in the direction
of the principal stresses are solved, and an approximate solution for the forming stresses
is obtained

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• It is assumed that, the deformation is taking place only in the direction of applied force
(plane strain, no change in width) and w > > t1
• On drawing, the change in thickness after deformation is accompanied by an equivalent
increase the length .
• The deformation stress, σd is thus given by the applied for F, divided by the area of the
deformed strip, (w · t2 ).
• Now to make a force balance, let us consider a slab of thickness dx, located at a distance x
from the virtual apex of wedges , and draw the free body diagram (Fig. 2-17a,b)

• If P is the die pressure normal to the work piece, then the frictional force is μp, where μ is
the coefficient of friction.
• The force in drawing is acting only in the formed direction and there is no backward force.
• Now, considering the equilibrium forces in the axial direction, we get,

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INTRODUCTION TO SHEET METAL FORMING

• Sheet metal forming may be defined as a type of forming process in which a force is applied
to a piece of sheet metal to modify its geometry rather than remove any excess material.
• The desired shape is usually obtained with the help of a suitable die and punch assembly by
applying a force to the die or punch.
• The applied force stresses the work material beyond its yield strength causing the material to
plastically deform to a suitable shape.
• The machine used for the purpose is called press, driven by either mechanical or hydraulic
action.
• Sheet metal forming includes a variety of processes from which products with different shapes
can be manufactured.
• Typical application of sheet metal forming processes include duct work, airplane wings, car
bodies, refrigeration units, medical tables and storage units, tubing, etc.

SHEET METAL
• Sheet Metal has very large surface compared to its thickness. Metal with less than 6mm
thick is called a sheet.
• If it is > 6 mm thickness, it is called a plate. Sheet metal refers to sheets obtained mainly
through rolling process.
• Sheet may be made of a number of ductile metals.
• In general sheet metal means steel sheets. A sheet is used to give a specific shape by subjecting
it to a series of operations.

TYPES OF SHEET METAL

1. Black Iron Sheet
2. Galvanized Iron Sheet
3. Terne Plate
4. Tin Plate
5. Stainless steel sheet
6. Sheet Copper
7. Sheet Aluminium

1. Black Iron Sheet:

• Is uncoated sheet made of steel.
• Has a bluish black appearance.
• It corrodes rapidly. It’s use is limited to articles that are to be painted or enameled.
• Example : Tanks, cylinders, pans etc.,
2. Galvanized Iron Sheet:
• Is an MS (Mild Steel) sheet coated with zinc.
• Sheets are dipped in a molten bath of zinc to get the coating. Zinc coating resists oxidation,
improves appearance permits soldering.

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• Used for milk cans, water cans etc.

3. Terne Plate :
• Is an MS sheet coated with a mixture of molten tin and lead.
• Has dull appearance. Mainly used for roofing’s, tanks etc.
• Lead is poisonous and hence not used for food containers.
4. Tin Plate:
• Is a thin steel sheet coated with pure tin used for making food containers etc.,
• Tin prevents rusting and does not react with food items.
5. Stainless steel sheet
• Is a sheet made of 18 Cr + 8 Ni steel/stainless steel.
• Has excellent corrosion resistance.
• Hardness and strength are extremely good. Can be deformed easily.
• Used in household utensils, in Labs to store acids.
6. Sheet Copper
• Is pure copper sheet. Reddish brown in color.
• Extremely Malleable and ductile.
• Used in applications where efficient heat transfer has to take place and needs to offer less
resistance.
7. Sheet Aluminium
• Are aluminium alloy sheets.
• Have high strength to weight ratio.
• Extensively used in all engineering and house hold applications.

DIE - PUNCH ASSEMBLY (SHEET METAL WORK)

• It Consists of punch and Die combination as Machine, with a press for the application of the
load.
• Sheet metal is either sheared or deformed to a given shape.
• Many items such as box, dish, cup, can, tray, funnel, corrugated sheet. etc. are produced by
this method
• The sheet that needs. to be processed is kept between the punch and the die and force is applied.
• As required, the desired component/configuration is obtained.
• A basic requirement in sheet metal work is the clamping device to hold the sheet down, to
prevent wrinkling of the sheet while working. As shown in figure below.
Punch:
• Is the movable tool. It forces the sheet metal against the die opening.
• Punching, piercing, blanking , drawing can be achieved. It is the convex tool.
• It is also referred to as the Male portion.
Die:
• Is the fixed tool in general. It will have the desired cavity to match with the punch.

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• It is the concave tool. It is referred to as the female portion. Both punch and Die act as male
and female members of the set up.

• They (Punch and Die) must resist wear and cracking tendency.
• They must undergo distortion to the Least extent.
• Hardened steel/Alloy steel is used for punch and die Fig. 7.2 shows the details.
• The punch is attached to a slide. The slide is actuated by the external power source.
• The slide moves in a guide way. The die is located at the bottom and the sheet can be placed at
the top near the die opening. The die is firmly mounted on the ground.

SHEET METAL WORK OPERATIONS

Sheet Metal Work Can be divided as
1. Shearing or cutting operation ; where cutting of the metal is carried out.
2. Forming operations involving shaping the metal without cutting .
Shearing Operations: Blanking, punching, piercing, perforating , Trimming, Shearing.
Shaving, and Notching.
Forming Operations: Bending, Spinning, Stretching, Drawing

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(i) BLANKING

• Blanking is a cutting or shearing process in which a piece of sheet metal is removed from a
larger piece of sheet stock by applying a suitable shearing force.
• Figure 5. 1 (a) illustrates the blanking process. In this process, the piece removed, called the
blank, is not a scrap but rather the desired part as shown in figure 5.1 (b).
• The sheet metal stock is placed over the die in the blanking press.
• The die instead of having a cavity, has a cut-out in the shape of the desired part along with
necessary clearance for removing the part (blank) easily.
• The blanking punch has the shape of the desired part and when it is driven downward at a
high speed into the sheet metal stock, the metal quickly bends and then fractures. The blank
which has been sheared from the stock now falls freely in the gap of the die.
• Finishing operations may be performed on the blank to obtain smoother edges.

Figure 5.1 Blanking

ii) PUNCHING
• Consists of cutting the inside contours in a sheet. The contour could be of any geometrical
shape.
• The sheet with the hole is used and the cut portion is discarded. Inside dimension is
important. Clear hole is created in the sheet.

Figure. Punching

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iii) PIERCING
• Consists of creating a hole in the sheet. Generally a circular hole.
• The cut portion is still sticking on to the surface as projection and the hole is not clear as in
punching.

Figure. Piercing

VARIOUS FORMS OF PUNCHING

The various forms of punching are illustrated in figure 5.3 and briefed as follows:
• Slotting is a punching operation that forms rectangular holes in the sheet metal. Sometimes,
the process is described as piercing despite the different shape obtained.

• Perforating is a process of punching a large number of closely spaced holes in a single

operation. These openings may serve the Purpose of providing ventilation (air flow passage)
in certain equipments and devices.

• Notching is a process of punching the edge of a sheet, forming a notch in the shape of a portion
of the punch.

• Nibbling is a process of punching a series of small overlapping slits or holes along a path to
cut-out a larger contoured shape. This eliminates the need for a custom punch and die, but
requires secondary operations to improve the accuracy and finish of the feature.

• Lancing is a process of creating a partial cut in the sheet, so that no material is removed. The
material is left attached to be bent and form a shape, such as a tab, vent, or louver (for
ventilation).

• Slitting is a process of cutting straight lines in the sheet by means of circular blades. No scrap
material is produced.

• Parting is a process of separating a part from the remaining sheet, by punching away the
material between parts.

• Trimming is a secondary process of punching away excess material from the perimeter of a
part, thereby finishing the work to the required size.

• Shaving is a process of shearing away minimum material from the edges of a feature or part
with the help of a small die clearance. The process is used to improve accuracy or finish.

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• Dinking is a specialized form of piercing used for punching thin and soft metals. A hollow
punch, called a dinking die, with beveled, sharpened edges presses the sheet into a block of
wood or soft metal block in order to not dull the edges. The die may be pressed into the material
with a hammer or a mechanical press.

Figure 5.3 Various forms of punching

BENDING
 Bending is a metal forming process in which a force is applied to a piece of sheet metal
causing it to bend at an angle and form the desired shape.
 Bending is a flexible process by which a variety of different shapes can be produced
through the use of standard die sets or bend brakes as shown in figure 5.6.
 The sheet metal is placed on a suitable die and held in place by means of hold-down punch,
while an appropriately shaped punch descends and forms the bend as shown in figure
5.8.

Figure 5.6 Bending

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ROLL BENDING
 Roll bending provides a technique that is useful for relatively thick work. The process as
shown in its simplest form in figure 5.7 consists of three rollers that can freely rotate about
their axis and arranged with uniform horizontal spacing.
 The outer rollers are usually immobile, while the inner roller, whose position can be
adjusted, presses the top side of the sheet metal to obtain the desired curvature. Different
curves can be obtained by controlling the distance and angle between the rolls.
 In some cases, a fourth roller is used to provide an extra adjustment in the curvature of the
sheet metal.

Figure 5.7 Roll bending

DEEP DRAWING

 Deep drawing is a sheet metal forming process in which a sheet metal blank is radially
drawn into a forming die by the hydraulic action of a punch as shown in figure 5.4.
 The process produces a box or cup shaped parts and hence is also called as cupping.

Figure 5.4 Deep drawing of cup

 In operation, the sheet metal blank is placed on the die and held under light pressure by
means of hold down or pressure rings to avoid wrinkling of the sheet.
 The die has a cavity in the external shape of the part to be formed.

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 The punch is moved down to apply a gradual force on the sheet blank, and as the punch
forces the blank through the die cavity, the blank takes the form of the punch and forms
into a cup shape.
 After a part is completely drawn, the punch and blank holder can be raised and the part
removed from the die.
 The portion of the sheet metal that was clamped under the blank holder may form a flange
around the part that can be trimmed off suitably.
 Examples of parts formed with deep drawing include automotive bodies and fuel tanks,
cans, cups, kitchen sinks, and pots and pans. The process is considered deep drawing
since the depth of the drawn part exceeds its diameter.

EMBOSSING

 Embossing is a metal forming process in which the sheet metal is drawn to shallow depths
by means of matched male and female dies, theoretically with no change in metal
thickness. Refer figure 5.5.
 The process involves pressing a punch (male die) into the surface of the workpiece, which
is placed on the female die with finely detailed designs (cavities). The design so formed
is visible on both sides of the sheet metal; one in projected form and the other in depressed
form.
 Embossing is carried out mostly for the purpose of stiffening flat panels, for better grip of
smooth surfaces, for projection welding purpose, and also for making decoration items,
number plates, name plates, jewelry, etc.

Figure 5.5 Embossing

COINING

 Coining is a basic type of bending in which the workpiece is stamped between the punch
and the die.
 Both the punch tip and the punch actually penetrate into the metal past the neutral axis
under a high amount of pressure.
 The sheet metal blank is kept in the die cavity and pressures as high as 5-6 times the
strength of the work material are applied.
 The penetration into the metal also relieves the internal stress and is thought to be a
contributing factor to the elimination of spring back. The process is mainly used for
producing fine details such as needed in minting coins and medals, or jewelry making.

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Figure 5.2.5 Coining

CLASSIFICATION OF DIES
Dies are broadly classified under two types:
1) Single-operation dies - designed to perform only single operation in each stroke of the
ram.
• Cutting dies
• Forming dies

2) Multi-operation dies- designed to perform more than one operation in each stroke of the
ram.
• Compound dies,
• Combination dies
• Progressive dies
a) Cutting dies

 Cutting dies are single operation dies, designed only to cut sheet metal by shearing action.
The dies are accordingly named, say for example, blanking dies, punching dies, etc.
 Figure 5.8 shows the blanking die, which consists of a cavity whose size at the top surface
is equal to that of the desired part.
 However, the cavity is designed with a taper to allow the fractured part of the metal
to fall freely into the gap in the die.

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Figure 5.8 Blanking

b) Forming dies

 Forming dies are single operation dies, designed to change the shape of the work metal by
deforming action. No cutting takes place in these dies.
 These dies are used to change the shape and size related configuration of metal blanks.
Figure 5.6 shows the different forming dies.

Figure 5.6 Bending

c) Compound dies

 Compound dies are multi-operation dies capable of performing more than one operation
in each stroke of the press (ram).
 For example, a compound die may blank and pierce a sheet metal simultaneously in a
single stroke. Figure 5.9 shows a simplified illustration in producing a by a compound die.
 In operation, the sheet metal is placed on top of the lower die. The upper die connected to
the ram comes in contact with the sheet metal while the piercing punch pierces the hole.
 As the punch goes on moving down, the springs keep on compressing and when a certain
limit is reached, the lower die moves upwards & blanks the outer portion from the sheet
metal stock.
 Thus the upper die acts as a blanking die and piercing punch, while the lower die acts as
blanking punch and piercing die.
 Compound dies are limited to perform simple concentric operations like blanking and

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cutting only, also the die design is very complicated.

Figure 5.9 Compound die

d) Combination dies

 Combination dies are multi-operation dies capable of performing more than one operation
in each stroke of the press (ram).
 Unlike compound dies which are used in cutting operations only, combination dies
perform cutting operations (blanking) combined with a forming operation like a bending,
drawing, coining, etc. Figure 5.10(a) shows the blanking and drawing operations using
combination dies.

Figure 5.10 Combination die [2]

 The sheet metal is initially placed on the lower die which has a cavity for blanking and
drawing operations to be performed. Refer figure 5.10 (a).

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 The blanking punch moves downwards, separates the blank from the sheet metal strip,
and now holds the strip on the edges of the lower die cavity by exerting slight pressure
on the strip. Refer figure 5.10 (b).
 The drawing punch then descends downwards and draws the blank into the desired
shape as shown in figure 5.10 (c).
e) Progressive dies

 Progressive dies are designed to perform operations in a series of progressive steps to

produce the final part. Punches and dies are designed so that successive stages in the
forming of the part are carried out in the same die on each stroke of the press.
 A simple progressive die for performing piercing and blanking operations to make a
Stripper plate plain, flat washer is shown in figure 5.11.
 As the sheet strip is fed from left to right side of the machine, the small hole for the washer
is first punched (pierced) at station-1, and then the washer is blanked (removed) from the
strip at station-2, meanwhile the punch A is piercing the hole for the next washer at station-
1.
 That is, in one stroke of the ram, both piercing and blanking operations are performed. fie
stripper plate is used to prevent the metal from separating from the die on the upward
stroke of the punch.

Fig. 5.11 Progressive die

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HIGH ENERGY RATE FORMING PROCESSES (HERF)

• In these forming processes large amount of energy is applied for a very short interval of
time.
• Many metals tend to deform more readily under extra – fast application of load which
make these processes useful to form large size parts out of most metals including those
which are otherwise difficult – to – form.
• Parts are formed at a rapid rate, and thus these processes are also called High – Velocity
forming (HVF) processes.

 There are several advantages of using these forming processes,

 like die costs are low,
 easy maintenance of tolerances,
 possibility of forming most metals,
 and material does not show spring-back effect.

 Production cost of components by such processes is low.

 Limitation of these processes is the need for skilled personnel.

There are three main high energy rate forming processes:

1) Explosive forming
2) Magnetic forming
3) Electro hydraulic forming

EXPLOSIVE FORMING
• Explosive forming, is distinguished from conventional forming in that the punch or
diaphragm is replaced by an explosive charge.
• Explosives used are generally high – explosive chemicals, gaseous mixtures, or
propellants.
• There are two techniques of high – explosive forming:
a) Stand – off technique
b) Contact technique

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a) Stand – off technique

• Sheet metal work piece blank is clamped over a die and the assembly is lowered into a tank
filled with water.
• Air in the die is pumped out.
• Explosive charge is placed at some predetermined distance from the work piece.
• On detonation of the explosive, a pressure pulse of very high intensity is produced.
• Gas bubble is also produced which expands spherically and then collapses.
• When the pressure pulse impinges against the work piece, the metal is deformed into the die
with as high velocity as 120 m/s.

Fig. Sequence of underwater explosive forming operations.

(i) explosive charge is set in position
(ii) pressure pulse and gas bubble are formed as the detonation of charge occurs,
(iii) workpiece is deformed, and
(iv) gas bubbles vent at the surface of water.
• Use of water as the energy transfer medium ensures a uniform transmission of energy and
muffles the sound of the explosive blast.
• Process is versatile – a large variety of shapes can be formed, there is virtually no limit to the
size of the work piece, and it is suitable for low – quantity production as well

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• Process has been successfully used to form steel plates

• 25 mm thick x 4 m diameter and to bulge steel tubes as thick as 25 mm.

b) Contact technique

• Explosive charge in the form of cartridge is held in direct contact with the work piece while
the detonation is initiated.
• Detonation builds up extremely high pressures (upto 30,000MPa) on the surface of the work
piece resulting in metal deformation, and possible fracture.
• Process is used often for bulging tubes

Fig. Schematic illustration of contact technique of explosive forming

Process is generally used for bulging of tubes

APPLICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVE FORMING

• Explosive forming is mainly used in the aerospace industries but has also found successful
applications in the production of automotive related components.
• Process has the greatest potential in limited – production prototype forming and for forming
large size components for which conventional tooling costs are prohibitively high.

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EXPLOSIVES USED CAN BE:

• High energy chemicals like TNT, RDX, and Dynamite.
• Gaseous mixtures
• Propellants

Factors to be considered while selecting an HERF process:

• Size of work piece
• Geometry of deformation
• Behavior of work material under high strain rates
• Energy requirements/ source
• Cost of tooling / die
• Cycle time
• Overall capital investment
• Safety considerations.

ROLE OF WATER:

• Acts as energy transfer medium

• Ensures uniform transmission of energy
• Muffles the sound of explosion
• Cushioning/ smooth application of energy on the work without direct contact.

PROCESS VARIABLES

• Type and amount of explosive: wide range of explosive is available.

• Stand off distance – SOD- (Distance between work piece and explosive): Optimum SOD must
be maintained.
• The medium used to transmit energy: water is most widely used.
• Work size
• Work material properties
• Vacuum in the die

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ELECTRO MAGNETIC FORMING

 Process is also called magnetic pulse forming and is mainly used for swaging
type operations, such as fastening fittings on the ends of tubes and crimping terminal
ends of cables.
 Other applications are blanking, forming, embossing, and drawing.

VARIOUS APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETIC FORMING PROCESS.

(i) Swaging
(ii) Expanding, and
(iii) Embossing or blanking.

(i) SWAGING

Process details/ Steps:

 The electrical energy is stored in the capacitor bank
 The tubular work piece is mounted on a mandrel having the die cavity to produce shape
on the tube.
 A primary coil is placed around the tube and mandrel assembly.
 When the switch is closed, the energy is discharged through the coil
 The coil produces a varying magnetic field around it.
 In the tube a secondary current is induced, which creates its own magnetic field in the
opposite direction.
 The directions of these two magnetic fields oppose one another and hence the rigidly held
coil repels the work into the die cavity.
 The work tube collapses into the die, assuming its shape.
 A high charging voltage is supplied for a short time to a bank of capacitors connected in
parallel. (The amount of electrical energy stored in the bank can be increased either by
adding capacitors to the bank or by increasing the voltage).

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 When the charging is complete, which takes very little time, a high voltage switch
triggers the stored electrical energy through the coil.
 A high – intensity magnetic field is established which induces eddy currents into the
conductive work piece, resulting in the establishment of another magnetic field.
 The forces produced by the two magnetic fields oppose each other with the consequence
that there is a repelling force between the coil and the tubular work piece that causes
permanent deformation of the work piece.

(ii) EXPANDING

(iii) EMBOSSING OR BLANKING.

Magnetic forming can be accomplished in any of the following three ways, depending upon
the requirements

 Coil surrounding work piece:- When a tube – like part x is to fit over another part y, coil is
designed to surround x so that when energized, would force the material of x tightly around y
to obtain necessary fit.
 Coil inside work piece:- Consider fixing of a collar on a tube – like part. The magnetic coil is
placed inside the tube – like part, so that when energized would expand the material of the
part into the collar.
 Coil on flat surface:- Flat coil having spiral shaped winding can also be designed to be
placed either above or below a flat work piece. These coils are used in conjunction with a die
to form, emboss, blank, or dimple the work piece.

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 Either permanent or expandable coils may be used. Since the repelling force acts on the coil as
well the work, the coil itself and the insulation on it must be capable of withstanding the force,
or else they will be destroyed.
 Expandable coils are less costly and are also preferred when high energy level is needed.
 In electromagnetic forming, the initial gap between the work piece and the die surface, called
the fly distance, must be sufficient to permit the material to deform plastically.
 From energy considerations, the ideal pressure pulse should be of just enough magnitude that
accelerates the part material to some maximum velocity and then let the part come to zero
velocity by the time it covers the full fly distance.

PROCESS PARAMETERS:

 Work piece size

 Electrical conductivity of the work material.
 Size of the capacitor bank
 The strength of the current, which decides the strength of the magnetic field and the force
applied.
 Insulation on the coil.
 Rigidity of the coil.

ADVANTAGES:
i) Suitable for small tubes
ii) Operations like collapsing, bending and crimping can be easily done.
iii) Electrical energy applied can be precisely controlled and hence the process is accurately
controlled.
iv) The process is safer compared to explosive forming.
v) Wide range of applications.

LIMITATIONS:
i) Applicable only for electrically conducting materials.
ii) Not suitable for large work pieces.
iii) Rigid clamping of primary coil is critical.
iv) Shorter life of the coil due to large forces acting on it.

APPLICATIONS:
 It has found extensive applications in the fabrication of hollow, non – circular, or
asymmetrical shapes from tubular stock.
 Compression applications involve swaging to produce compression, tensile, and
torque joints or sealed pressure joints, and swaging to apply compression bands or shrink
rings for fastening components together.

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 Manufacturing Process Subject code: BME302 Semester: 03 Module-3

 Flat coils have been used on flat sheets to produce stretch (internal) and shrink (external)
flanges on ring and disc – shaped work pieces.
 Electromagnetic forming has also been used to perform shearing, piercing, and riveting.

ELECTRO HYDRAULIC FORMING

 Electro hydraulic forming (EHF), also known as electro spark forming, is a process in
which electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy for the forming of metallic
parts.
 A bank of capacitors is first charged to a high voltage and then discharged across a gap
between two electrodes, causing explosions inside the hollow work piece, which is
filled with some suitable medium, generally water.
 These explosions produce shock waves that travel radially in all directions at high
velocity until they meet some obstruction.
 If the discharge energy is sufficiently high, the hollow work piece is deformed.
 The deformation can be controlled by applying external restraints in the form of die or by
varying the amount of energy released.

Fig. Electro Hydraulic Forming

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 Manufacturing Process Subject code: BME302 Semester: 03 Module-3

Fig. Unrestrained and restrained electro- hydraulic forming process.

Principle
 A sudden electrical discharge in the form of sparks is produced between electrodes and
this discharge produces a shock wave in the water medium.
 This shock wave deforms the work plate and collapses it into the die.
 Characteristics of this process are similar to those of explosive forming.
 Major difference, however, is that a chemical explosive is replaced by a capacitor bank,
which stores the electrical energy.
 Capacitor is charged through a charging circuit.
 When the switch is closed, aspark is produced between electrodes and a shock wave
or pressure pulse is created.
 Energy released is much lesser than that released in explosive forming.

Process Characteristics:
 Stand off distance: It must be optimum.
 Capacitor used: The energy of the pressure pulse depends on the size of capacitor.
 Transfer medium: Usually water is used.
 Vacuum: the die cavity must be evacuated to prevent adiabatic heating of the work due to
a sudden compression of air.
 Material properties with regard to the application of high rates of strain.

Advantages

 EHF can form hollow shapes with much ease and at less cost compared to other forming
techniques.

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 Manufacturing Process Subject code: BME302 Semester: 03 Module-3

 EHF is more adaptable to automatic production compared to other high energy rate
forming techniques.
 EHF can produce small – to intermediate sized parts that don't have excessive
energy requirements.
 Better control of the pressure pulse as source of energy is electrical- which can be
easily controlled.
 Safer in handling than the explosive materials.
 More suitable if the work size is small to medium.
 Thin plates can be formed with smaller amounts of energy.
 The process does not depend on the electrical properties of the work material.

Limitations:

 Suitable only for smaller works

 Need for vacuum makes the equipment more complicated.
 Proper SOD is necessary for effective process.

Applications:

 They include smaller radar dish, cone and other shapes in thinner and small works.

Accuracy of parts produced

 Accuracy of electro hydraulically formed parts depends on the control of both the
magnitude and location of energy discharges and on the dimensional accuracy of the dies
used.
 External dimensions on tubular parts are possible to achieve within ± 0.05 mm with the
current state of technology.

Materials formed

 Materials having low ductility or having critical impact velocity less than 30 m/s are
generally not considered to be good candidate for EHF.
 All materials that can be formed by conventional forming processes can be formed by
EHF also.
 These materials are aluminum alloys, nickel alloys, stainless steels, titanium, and
Inconel-718.

ADVANTAGES OF HERF
 Production rates are higher, as parts are made at a rapid rate.
 Die costs are relatively lower.
 Tolerances can be easily maintained.

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 Versatility of the process – it is possible to form most metals including difficult to form
metals.
 No or minimum spring back effect on the material after the process.
 Production cost is low as power hammer (or press) is eliminated in the process. Hence it
is economically justifiable.
 Complex shapes / profiles can be made much easily, as compared to conventional
forming.
 The required final shape/ dimensions are obtained in one stroke (or step), thus eliminating
intermediate forming steps and pre forming dies.
 Suitable for a range of production volume such as small numbers, batches or mass
production

The forming processes are affected by the rates of strain used.

Effects of strain rates during forming:

1) The flow stress increases with strain rates

2) The temperature of work is increases due to adiabatic heating.
3) Improved lubrication if lubricating film is maintained.
4) Many difficult to form materials like Titanium and Tungsten alloys, can be deformed
under high strain rates.

PRINCIPLE / IMPORTANT FEATURES OF HERF PROCESSES:

 The energy of deformation is delivered at a much higher rate than in conventional
practice.
 Larger energy is applied for a very short interval of time.
 High particle velocities are produced in contrast with conventional forming process.
 The velocity of deformation is also very large and hence these are also called High
Velocity Forming (HVF) processes.
 Many metals tend to deform more readily under extra fast application of force.
 Large parts can be easily formed by this technique.
 For many metals, the elongation to fracture increases with strain rate beyond the usual
metal working range, until a critical strain rate is achieved, where the ductility drops
sharply.
 The strain rate dependence of strength increases with increasing temperature.
 The yield stress and flow stress at lower plastic strains are more dependent on strain
rate than the tensile strength.
 High rates of strain cause the yield point to appear in tests on low carbon steel that do
not show a yield point under ordinary rates of strain.

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LIMITATIONS OF HERF
 Highly skilled personnel are required from design to execution.
 Transient stresses of high magnitude are applied on the work.
 Not suitable to highly brittle materials
 Source of energy (chemical explosive or electrical) must be handled carefully.
 Governmental regulations /procedures / safety norms must be followed.
 Dies need to be much bigger to withstand high energy rates and shocks and to prevent
cracking.
 Controlling the application of energy is critical as it may crack the die or work.
 It is very essential to know the behaviour or established performance of the work metal
initially

Applications of HERF:
 In ship building – to form large plates / parts (up to 25 mm thick).
 Bending thick tubes/ pipes (up to 25 mm thick).
 Crimping of metal strips.
 Radar dishes
 Elliptical domes used in space applications.
 Cladding of two large plates of dissimilar metals.

REFERENCES:

1. Ghosh, A. and Mallik, A. K., (2017), Manufacturing Science, East-West Press.

2. Parmar R. S., (2007), Welding Processes and Technology, Khanna Publishers.
3. Little R. L. – ‘Welding and Welding Technology’ – Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi – 1989
4. Grong O. – ‘Metallurgical Modelling of Welding’ – The Institute of Materials – 1997 –
2nd Edition
5. Kou S. – ‘Welding Metallurgy’ – John Wiley Publications, New York – 2003 – 2nd
Edition.
6. Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid – ‘Manufacturing Engineering and
Technology’ – Prentice Hall – 2013 – 7th Edition
7. Principles of foundry technology, 4th edition, P L Jain, Tata McGraw Hill, 2006.
8. Advanced Welding Processes technology and process control, John Norrish, Wood Head
Publishing, 2006.
9. A text book of “Manufacturing Process-I” by Kestoor Praveen, Suggi Publishing

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