Q1)Explain List the advantages of CDMA over TDMA multiple Properties of pseudo noise sequences in analog-digital ML decoder considers

ML decoder considers factors such as noise characteristics,

access scheme in Analog digital communication ? ANS: communication include: channel impairments, and modulation scheme to estimate the
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) and TDMA (Time Division *Pseudorandomness: The sequence appears random, which is most likely transmitted symbol or sequence of symbols.
Multiple Access) are both multiple access schemes used in essential for encryption and modulation techniques.
communication systems. Here are some advantages of CDMA *Long period: The sequence repeats after a very long period, Q.8)explanation of the eyepattern in base band digital transmission
over TDMA: ensuring it doesn't repeat often within a communicationsession. with a neat diagram in Analog digital communication ANS:
1)Flexibility: CDMA allows for more flexible allocation of *Auto-correlation: The sequence has low auto-correlation, In baseband digital transmission, the eye pattern is a visual
resources since each user is assigned a unique code. This means meaning it doesn't correlate strongly with its shifted versions. representation of a digital signal's quality and integrity. It's crucial for
that users can transmit data simultaneously without strict time- This property is crucial in spread spectrum systems. assessing signal integrity, especially in high-speed communication
slot assignments, as in TDMA. *Cross-correlation: Different sequences have low cross- systems.Imagine a digital signal being transmitted over a
2)Resistance to Interference: CDMA spreads the signal over a correlation with each other, allowing multiple users to share the communication channel. At the receiver end, the signal is sampled at
wide bandwidth using unique codes, which makes it more same channel without interfering with each other significantly. specific intervals to interpret the transmitted data. The eye pattern is
formed by superimposing multiple sampled bits over each other,
resistant to interference and jamming compared to TDMA, *Ease of generation: Pseudo noise sequences can be generated
creating a pattern resembling an "eye."
where multiple users share the same frequency band. efficiently using algorithms, making them practical for real-time
Here's how it works:
3)Better Utilization of Resources: CDMA allows for better applications. *Horizontal Axis: Represents time, with each division indicating the
utilization of available bandwidth since all users can transmit Q5)Full explanation of Continuous Wave Modulation? When duration of one bit.
simultaneously using different codes. In TDMA, if a time slot is should it be used over other forms of modulation in Analog *Vertical Axis: Represents the signal voltage or amplitude.
not used by a user, it r9emains idle, leading to potential waste digital communication ? ANS: *Eye Opening: The main feature of the eye pattern is the "eye
of bandwidth. Continuous Wave Modulation (CW modulation) is a type of opening," which is the space between the high and low levels of the
4)Improved Security: CDMA provides inherent security as the modulation where the amplitude, frequency, or phase of a signal. It represents the signal's noise margin and determines the
unique codes assigned to each user make it difficult for continuous wave carrier signal is varied in accordance with the receiver's ability to distinguish between different signal levels.
unauthorized users to intercept or decode the transmitted amplitude of the message signal (baseband signal) being *Eye Width: Indicates the duration of each bit.
signals compared to TDMA, where interception is relatively transmitted. This modulation technique is commonly used in *Eye Height: Reflects the signal's amplitude.
easier. analog communication systems. *Noise and Distortions: Any noise or distortion in the signal appears
as jitter or widening of the eye pattern, reducing the eye opening.
5)Soft Capacity Limit: CDMA systems have a soft capacity limit, In CW modulation, the carrier signal is typically a high-frequency
This can lead to errors in interpreting the transmitted data.
meaning that as more users are added, the quality of service sine wave, and the message signal contains the information to
Q.9)What is companding? Explain analog companding process with
degrades gradually rather than abruptly reaching a hard limit as be transmitted. the help of block diagram in Analog digital communication
in TDMA systems. When to use CW modulation over other forms of modulation in Companding, short for "compressing" and "expanding," is a technique
Q2)Full explanation of What is the difference between Coherent and analog communication depends on several factors: used in analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion processes
Non-coherent demodulation in Analog digital communication ANS: *Bandwidth Efficiency: CW modulation is often preferred when to reduce the effect of quantization noise.
Coherent Demodulation: bandwidth efficiency is not a primary concern since it typically In analog communication, companding is primarily used to improve
*In coherent demodulation, the receiver has knowledge of the requires more bandwidth compared to other modulation the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the transmission system. The
phase and frequency of the carrier signal used in modulation. techniques like phase modulation. process involves compressing the dynamic range of the input signal
*It requires synchronization between the receiver and the *Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): In some cases, CW modulation before transmission (companding) and then expanding it back to its
transmitter. may offer better SNR performance compared to other original dynamic range at the receiving end (expanding). This
*Coherent demodulation involves multiplying the received modulation techniques, particularly when the signal experiences compression reduces the quantization noise in the lower amplitude
signal by a locally generated carrier signal that is synchronized signals while allowing higher amplitude signals to remain unaffected.
significant noise or interference.
*Here's a simplified block diagram illustrating the analog companding
with the transmitted carrier. This process enables the receiver *Power Efficiency: Depending on the application, CW
process:
to effectively extract the modulating signal. modulation may offer better power efficiency compared to Input Signal: The analog signal to be transmitted is fed into the
*Commonly used in high-performance communication systems other modulation techniques, as it does not require additional companding system.
where accurate phase and frequency information is available, energy to switch between different modulation states. Compressor: The compressor function compresses the dynamic range
such as in phase-shift keying (PSK) and quadrature amplitude *Implementation Complexity: CW modulation can be relatively of the input signal. This is typically achieved using a non-linear
modulation (QAM) schemes. simple to implement compared to more complex modulation algorithm such as μ-law or A-law companding. The compressed signal
*It offers better performance in terms of signal-to-noise ratio techniques, making it suitable for applications where simplicity has a reduced dynamic range, with lower amplitude signals being
(SNR) and error rate compared to non-coherent demodulation. is desired. amplified more than higher amplitude signals.
Non-coherent Demodulation: Q.6) Explain Illustrate the concept of 8 QAM transmitter with Transmitter: The compressed signal is then transmitted over the
*In non-coherent demodulation, the receiver does not require the truth table in Analog digital communication Ans: communication channel.
exact knowledge of the phase and frequency of the carrier In 8-QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation), we transmit Receiver: At the receiving end, the transmitted signal is received.
signal. Expander: The expander function reverses the compression applied at
data by varying both the amplitude and phase of a carrier signal.
the transmitter. It expands the dynamic range of the received signal
*It does not rely on synchronization between the receiver and The concept involves encoding 3 bits of data into each symbol.
back to its original range. This process helps to restore the original
transmitter. Here's a simplified truth table illustrating how the 3-bit input signal amplitude while attenuating the quantization noise introduced
*Instead of multiplying the received signal with a synchronized maps to the corresponding amplitude and phase: during compression.
carrier, non-coherent demodulation typically involves envelope Input (3 bits) Amplitude Phase Output Signal: The expanded signal, now with reduced quantization
detection or some other technique that does not require carrier 000 Low 0 degrees noise, is the output of the companding system.
phase information. 001 Low 45 degrees Q.10)Explain time division multiplication ? Ans:
*Suitable for scenarios where carrier synchronization is 010 Medium 90 degrees Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a method used in
challenging or not feasible, such as in frequency-shift keying 011 Medium 135 degrees telecommunications to transmit multiple signals simultaneously over
(FSK) or amplitude-shift keying (ASK) systems. 100 High 180 degrees a single transmission path. Here's how it works:
*Non-coherent demodulation is simpler and more robust in the 101 High 225 degrees *Time Division: The available time on the transmission path is divided
presence of carrier frequency offsets and phase noise. 110 High 270 degrees into discrete time slots.
Q.3)Explain What is ISI? Explain the applications of eye pattern to 111 High 315 degrees *Multiplexing: Each input signal is assigned its own time slot within
detect ISI in Analog digital communication ANS: the overall time frame.
Each combination of bits (000 to 111) represents a unique point
ISI stands for Intersymbol Interference, which occurs in *Transmission: The signals are then transmitted sequentially, with
in the amplitude-phase plane, allowing us to encode 8 different
communication systems when the symbols transmitted through each signal occupying its designated time slot.
symbols. These symbols are then transmitted, carrying data over *Demultiplexing: At the receiving end, the signals are separated back
a channel interfere with each other, making it difficult for the the communication channel. into their original streams based on the timing information.
receiver to correctly decode the symbols. This interference is Q.7)Full explanation of the correlation receiver with explanation TDM is commonly used in various applications such as telephone
typically caused by various factors such as channel dispersion, of detector and maximum- likelihood decoder blocks in Analog systems, digital communication networks, and even in some forms of
noise, and bandwidth limitations.The eye pattern is a graphical digital communication ANS : analog-digital communication digital broadcasting. It allows multiple users to share the same
representation of a digital signal's behavior over time, systems, a correlation receiver is a crucial component used for transmission medium efficiently by allocating time slots dynamically
particularly useful in analyzing and detecting ISI. demodulating and decoding digital signals. Here's a breakdown based on demand.
Applications: of its key elements:*Correlation Receiver: The correlation Q.11) Review of signals and systems in analog and digital
*Visual Representation: The eye pattern graphically depicts the receiver is designed to extract the transmitted signal from the communication ? ANS:
received signal by plotting multiple periods of the signal on top received noisy signal. It operates based on the principle of Reviewing signals and systems in analog and digital
of each other. This representation resembles the shape of an correlation between the transmitted signal and the received communication involves understanding the fundamentals
eye, hence the name. signal.The received signal typically undergoes noise and
*Detection of ISI: ISI manifests in the eye pattern as overlapping of how information is transmitted, processed, and received.
distortion during transmission, making it difficult to directly
or distorted "eyes." These overlapping regions indicate In analog communication, signals are continuous and can
recover the original signal.By correlating the received signal
interference between adjacent symbols, making it difficult for take on any value within a range. Examples include audio
with a known reference signal (or a replica of the transmitted
the receiver to distinguish one symbol from another accurately. signal), the receiver can estimate the timing and phase shifts signals and voltage fluctuations in electronic circuits.
*Quantifying ISI: By analyzing the opening and closure of the introduced during transmission.The correlation process helps in Systems in analog communication involve components like
eyes in the pattern, engineers can quantify the level of ISI synchronizing the received signal with the reference signal, amplifiers, filters, and modulators/demodulators, which
present in the communication system. A wider eye opening improving the accuracy of subsequent decoding.*Detector: The manipulate analog signals to transmit information.
indicates less interference and better signal quality, while a detector block in the correlation receiver is responsible for In digital communication, signals are discrete and
narrower opening suggests higher levels of ISI. detecting the presence of the transmitted signal in the received represented as sequences of binary digits (bits). Digital
*Adjusting Communication Parameters: Based on the analysis of signal.It often employs techniques such as matched filtering or systems use techniques like pulse code modulation (PCM)
the eye pattern, engineers can adjust various communication coherent detection to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for encoding analog signals into digital form, and
parameters such as equalization techniques, modulation and enhance the detection performance.Matched filtering modulation schemes like amplitude shift keying (ASK) or
schemes, and filtering methods to mitigate ISI and improve the involves correlating the received signal with a template phase shift keying (PSK) for transmitting digital data over
overall performance of the system. waveform that matches the shape and timing of the transmitted analog channels.
signal. This helps in maximizing the detection
Q.4)Explain What is a Pseudo noise sequence? What are the A comprehensive review should cover topics like signal
likelihood.*Maximum-Likelihood (ML) Decoder:The ML decoder
properties of Pseudo noise sequence in Analog digital types, Fourier analysis, modulation techniques, filtering,
is a key component of the correlation receiver responsible for
communication ANS: decoding the received signal and recovering the original sampling, quantization, and digital modulation schemes.
A pseudo noise sequence is a sequence of binary digits (0s and transmitted data.It operates by comparing the received signal Understanding these concepts is essential for designing and
1s) that appears random but is actually deterministic. It's with all possible transmitted signals from the modulation analyzing communication systems, both analog and digital.
generated by a mathematical algorithm, typically a shift register scheme and selecting the one that maximizes the likelihood of
observing the received signal given the transmitted signal.The
or a linear feedback shift register (LFSR).
Q.12)Frequency domain representation of signals in analog and In digital communication, FM signals can be represented calculations are commonly used to determine the likelihood of
digital communication ? ANS:In both analog and digital digitally using techniques such as Frequency Shift Keying (FSK). errors occurring. Higher SNR generally results in lower
communication, signals can be analyzed in the frequency In FSK modulation, different digital symbols are represented by probability of error.In digital communication, the probability of
domain using techniques like Fourier analysis.In analog different frequencies. For example, in binary FSK (BFSK), one error evaluation focuses on how accurately the received signal
communication, signals are typically continuous and can be frequency represents a binary '1' and another frequency matches the transmitted signal. This is often quantified using
represented as functions of time. Fourier analysis allows us to represents a binary '0'. This allows for the transmission of digital the bit error rate (BER), which measures the probability of a bit
decompose these signals into their constituent frequencies, data over communication channels using frequency variations, being received incorrectly. Factors such as modulation scheme,
revealing the spectrum of the signal. This spectrum provides making it suitable for applications such as wireless coding techniques, and channel conditions influence the BER.
information about the frequencies present in the signal and communication and digital broadcasting. Lower BER indicates better reliability of the digital
their respective amplitudes and phases.In digital communication system.In both analog and digital
communication, signals are discrete and represented as In analog communication, PM (Phase Modulation) signals are communication, minimizing the probability of error is crucial for
sequences of binary digits. Even though digital signals are represented by varying the phase of a carrier wave in achieving reliable transmission and accurate reception of
discrete in time, they can still be analyzed in the frequency accordance with the modulating signal. This means that the information.
domain using techniques like the Discrete Fourier Transform instantaneous phase of the carrier wave is changed in
(DFT) or the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). These techniques proportion to the amplitude of the modulating signal. In digital Q.20)DISSCUSS Inter symbol Interference Intersymbol
allow us to examine the frequency content of digital signals, communication, PM signals can be represented by discretizing interference (ISI) is a phenomenon that occurs in communication
which is crucial for understanding their behavior and designing both the phase of the carrier wave and the modulating signal systems where symbols transmitted in a digital signal interfere with
efficient communication systems.Understanding the frequency into finite levels, often using techniques like phase shift keying each other, making it difficult to accurately decode the received
domain representation of signals is essential for tasks like signal (PSK). This allows for the transmission of digital data over the signal. ISI typically arises due to the limited bandwidth of the
filtering, modulation/demodulation, and channel communication channel. communication channel or the presence of multipath propagation,
characterization in both analog and digital communication causing symbols to overlap in time. When symbols overlap, the
systems. receiver may misinterpret the received signal, leading to errors in
Q.16) Spectral characteristics of angle modulated signals. Ans: data recovery.In digital communication systems, ISI is often managed
using techniques such as pulse shaping, equalization, and adaptive
Q.13)DSB modulation in analog and digital communication ? filtering. These methods aim to mitigate the effects of ISI by shaping
In analog communication, angle-modulated signals like FM
(Frequency Modulation) and PM (Phase Modulation) exhibit the transmitted pulses or compensating for channel distortion,
ANS:DSB (Double Sideband) modulation is used in both analog thereby improving the reliability and accuracy of signal reception.
continuous spectra. The spectral characteristics typically show a
and digital communication systems.In analog communication, main lobe centered around the carrier frequency, with
DSB modulation involves modulating a carrier signal by mixing it sidebands extending infinitely in both positive and negative Q.21)Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
with the input signal, resulting in two sidebands containing the frequency directions. The amplitude of the sidebands decreases
same information but mirrored around the carrier frequency. as their frequency increases.In digital communication, angle- Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) is a widely used
It's commonly used in AM (Amplitude Modulation) modulated signals are often generated using techniques like modulation scheme in digital communication, particularly in
broadcasting.In digital communication, DSB modulation can also minimum shift keying (MSK) or π/4-shift QPSK (Quadrature applications such as wireless communication, cable modems,
be employed, but the focus shifts to digital modulation Phase Shift Keying). These signals also exhibit continuous and digital television.QAM encodes digital data by varying both
techniques like QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) or spectra, but with spectral efficiency optimizations, such as the amplitude and phase of a carrier signal. It combines two
PSK (Phase Shift Keying), where binary data is modulated onto a narrower bandwidth requirements compared to their analog amplitude-modulated (AM) signals, typically called the in-phase
carrier signal.In both cases, DSB modulation allows for efficient counterparts. The spectral characteristics depend on the specific (I) and quadrature (Q) components, to represent a constellation
transmission of information over a communication channel. modulation scheme and the data rate, but they generally of points in the complex plane. The I and Q components
maintain the main lobe centered around the carrier frequency represent the real and imaginary parts of the complex signal,
SSB (Single Sideband) modulation is a technique used in both with sidebands. However, the sidebands' amplitudes and respectively.The constellation diagram of a QAM signal depicts
analog and digital communication systems. In analog spacing might differ based on the modulation scheme and the amplitude and phase combinations used to represent
communication, SSB modulation is used to transmit voice parameters. different symbols. For example, a 16-QAM constellation has 16
signals more efficiently by suppressing one of the sidebands and points, each representing a unique combination of amplitude
the carrier. This reduces bandwidth usage compared to Q.17) ELEMENTS OF DETECTION THEORY? ANS:1. *Signal and phase. The higher the number of points in the constellation,
traditional AM modulation. In digital communication, SSB Detection*: This refers to the ability to detect a signal (stimulus) the more bits can be encoded per symbol, increasing the data
modulation can be used as part of more advanced modulation in the presence of noise (background interference). Signal transmission rate.QAM offers a good balance between spectral
schemes, like QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation), to detection theory explores how factors like signal strength, noise efficiency and complexity, making it suitable for various
transmit digital data over a communication channel. It helps in level, and individual sensitivity affect detection.2. *Sensitivity*: communication systems where bandwidth efficiency is
reducing bandwidth requirements and increasing the efficiency Sensitivity in detection theory refers to how well an individual important.
of data transmission. can distinguish between signal and noise. It's often measured by
the ability to detect faint signals or weak stimuli.3. *Criterion*: Q.22)Continuous Phase Modulation
VSB (Vestigial Sideband) modulation is primarily used in analog The criterion is the decision threshold that individuals use to
television broadcasting. In analog communication, VSB determine whether they perceive a stimulus as present or Continuous Phase Modulation (CPM) is a modulation technique
modulation is used to transmit video and audio signals absent. It's influenced by factors such as motivation, used in digital communication systems to encode digital data
efficiently over limited bandwidth channels. It suppresses one expectation, and the consequences of false alarms or misses.4. onto a carrier signal while maintaining a continuous phase.
sideband and part of the other, allowing for more efficient use *Hits, False Alarms, Correct Rejections, and Misses*: These are Unlike other modulation schemes like Amplitude Shift Keying
of bandwidth while maintaining signal quality.In digital the outcomes of a detection task. A hit occurs when a signal is (ASK) or Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), where the phase of the
communication, VSB modulation is less common compared to present, and the individual correctly detects it. A false alarm carrier signal can abruptly change, CPM ensures that the phase
other modulation techniques like ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying), occurs when a signal is absent, but the individual incorrectly transitions smoothly between symbols.In CPM, the phase of the
PSK (Phase Shift Keying), and QAM (Quadrature Amplitude detects it. Correct rejections happen when a signal is absent, carrier signal is modulated in a continuous and smooth manner,
Modulation). However, VSB modulation can still be used in and the individual correctly identifies its absence. Misses occur often using a predefined phase trajectory known as the
certain digital transmission systems, particularly in scenarios when a signal is present, but the individual fails to detect it. modulation index or phase deviation profile. This continuous
where bandwidth efficiency is crucial, such as digital television phase transition helps in reducing intersymbol interference (ISI)
broadcasting or certain types of digital radio transmission. Q.18) Optimum detection of signals in noise ?ANS: Optimum and spectral spreading, which are common issues in
detection of signals in noise involves maximizing the ability to communication systems.One of the popular CPM schemes is
Q.14)WHAT IS ANALOG MODULATION? ANS: distinguish between the signal and the noise while considering Continuous Phase Frequency Shift Keying (CPFSK), where the
factors like sensitivity and bias. Here's how it's achieved: phase of the carrier signal changes continuously with frequency
Angle modulation refers to modulation techniques where the shifts corresponding to different digital symbols. Another
angle of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the 1. *Signal Processing Techniques*: Utilize signal processing commonly used CPM scheme is Continuous Phase Modulation
message signal. This includes Frequency Modulation (FM) and techniques to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) before with Linear Phase Trajectory (L-CPM), which utilizes linear phase
Phase Modulation (PM).In analog communication, angle detection. This may include filtering, averaging, or other trajectories for encoding data.
modulation is primarily represented by FM and PM. FM is preprocessing methods to isolate and amplify the signal relative
commonly used in broadcasting, particularly for high-fidelity to the noise.2. *Optimal Decision Criteria*: Set decision criteria Q.23)NYQUIST CRITERION
audio transmission, due to its resilience against amplitude (thresholds) based on the specific context and goals of the
variations and noise. PM is also used in certain communication detection task. Optimal criteria balance the costs of misses and The Nyquist criterion, named after engineer Harry Nyquist, is a
systems, although less commonly than FM.In digital false alarms, considering factors like the importance of fundamental concept in signal processing and communication
communication, angle modulation techniques like FM and PM detecting the signal correctly and the consequences of false theory. It states that for a signal to be accurately sampled and
can be used as part of more complex modulation schemes, such positives.3. *Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) Analysis*: then reconstructed without aliasing, the sampling rate must be
as FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) and PSK (Phase Shift Keying), Use ROC analysis to evaluate and optimize detection at least twice the highest frequency present in the signal, a
respectively. These modulation schemes are used to transmit performance. ROC curves provide insights into the trade-offs principle often referred to as the Nyquist-Shannon sampling
digital data over communication channels, with FSK modulating between hit rates and false alarm rates at different decision theorem.In other words, if fmax represents the highest
between different frequencies and PSK modulating between criteria, helping to identify the most effective detection frequency component in a signal, the sampling frequency fs
different phase shifts. They are widely used in applications like strategy.4.*Maximizing Sensitivity*: Enhance sensitivity by must be greater than or equal to 2*fmax to prevent aliasing.
wireless communication, satellite communication, and digital improving the signal processing algorithms, optimizing sensor Mathematically, this can be expressed as: fs=>2*fmax
broadcasting. design, or training individuals to better discriminate between
signal and noise.5. *Reducing Bias*: Minimize bias by ensuring
that decision criteria are unbiased and by providing appropriate If the sampling frequency is too low compared to the signal's
Q.15)WHAT IS FREQUENCY AND PHASE MODULATION ? ANS: bandwidth, aliasing can occur, where higher frequency
training to individuals involved in the detection task. Biases can
components fold back into lower frequency components,
distort detection outcomes and compromise performance.
In analog communication, FM (Frequency Modulation) signals leading to distortion in the reconstructed signal.The Nyquist
are represented by continuously varying the frequency of a criterion is crucial in various applications, including digital signal
carrier wave in proportion to the amplitude of the modulating Q.19)Probability of Error evaluations in analog and digital processing, telecommunications, and audio engineering, where
signal (message signal). This results in a signal with a varying communication?In analog communication, the probability of accurate sampling and reconstruction of signals are essential for
frequency, where the instantaneous frequency of the carrier error evaluation typically involves assessing how noise affects preserving the integrity of information.
wave is directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating the transmitted signal. This is often done by comparing the
signal at that point in time. FM signals are commonly used in strength of the signal to the level of noise present in the
broadcasting, particularly for high-fidelity audio transmission. channel. Techniques such as signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)