Recursive Sets

Recursively Enumerable Set

Special Sets

Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Sets∗

Xiaofeng Gao

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Shanghai Jiao Tong University, P.R.China

CS363-Computability Theory

∗
Special thanks is given to Prof. Yuxi Fu for sharing his teaching materials.
CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 1/72
 Recursive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set
Special Sets

Outline

1 Recursive Sets
Decidable Predicate
Reduction
Rice Theorem

2 Recursively Enumerable Set

Partial Decidable Predicates
Theorems

3 Special Sets
Productive Sets
Creative Set
Simple Sets

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 2/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Outline

1 Recursive Sets
Decidable Predicate
Reduction
Rice Theorem

2 Recursively Enumerable Set

Partial Decidable Predicates
Theorems

3 Special Sets
Productive Sets
Creative Set
Simple Sets

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 3/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Decision Problem, Predicate, Number Set

The following emphasizes the importance of the subsets of N:

Decision Problems ⇔ Predicates on Number

⇔ Sets of Numbers

A central theme of recursion theory is to look for sensible

classification of number sets.

Classification is often done with the help of reduction.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 4/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Recursive Set

Let A be a subset of N. The characteristic function of A is given by


1, if x ∈ A,
cA (x) =
0, if x ∈ / A.

A is recursive if cA (x) is computable.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 5/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Solvable Problem

A recursive set is (the domain of) a solvable problem.

It is important to know if a problem is solvable.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 6/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Examples

The following sets are recursive.

(a) N.

(b) E (the even numbers).

(c) Any finite set.

(d) The set of prime numbers.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 7/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Unsolvable Problem

Here are some important unsolvable problems:

K = {x | x ∈ Wx },
Fin = {x | Wx is finite},
Inf = {x | Wx is infinite},
Cof = {x | Wx is cofinite},
Rec = {x | Wx is recursive},
Tot = {x | φx is total},
Ext = {x | φx is extensible to a total recursive function}.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 8/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Cofinite

Cof = {x | Wx is cofinite} means the set whose complement is finite.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 9/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Cofinite

Cof = {x | Wx is cofinite} means the set whose complement is finite.

Example 1: {x | x ≥ 5} is cofinite.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 9/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Cofinite

Cof = {x | Wx is cofinite} means the set whose complement is finite.

Example 1: {x | x ≥ 5} is cofinite.

Not every infinite set is cofinite.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 9/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Cofinite

Cof = {x | Wx is cofinite} means the set whose complement is finite.

Example 1: {x | x ≥ 5} is cofinite.

Not every infinite set is cofinite.

Example 2: E, O are not cofinite.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 9/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Extensible Functions
Ext = {x | φx is extensible to a total recursive function}.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 10/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Extensible Functions
Ext = {x | φx is extensible to a total recursive function}.

Example: f (x) = φx (x) + 1 is not extensible.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 10/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Extensible Functions
Ext = {x | φx is extensible to a total recursive function}.

Example: f (x) = φx (x) + 1 is not extensible.

Proof: Assume f (x) is extensible, then define total recursive function


ψU (x, x) + 1 if ψU (x, x) is defined.
g(x) = (1)
z otherwise
Let φm be the Gödel coding of g(x), then φm is a total recursive
function.
When x = m, φm (m) = ψU (m, m) by universal problem.
However, φm (m) = g(m) = ψU (m, m) + 1 by equation (1). A
contradiction. 2

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 10/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Extensible Functions
Ext = {x | φx is extensible to a total recursive function}.

Example: f (x) = φx (x) + 1 is not extensible.

Proof: Assume f (x) is extensible, then define total recursive function


ψU (x, x) + 1 if ψU (x, x) is defined.
g(x) = (1)
z otherwise
Let φm be the Gödel coding of g(x), then φm is a total recursive
function.
When x = m, φm (m) = ψU (m, m) by universal problem.
However, φm (m) = g(m) = ψU (m, m) + 1 by equation (1). A
contradiction. 2

Comment: Not every partial recursive function can be obtained by

restricting a total recursive function.
CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 10/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Decidable Predicate

A predicate M(x) is decidable if its characteristic function cM (x)

given by 
1, if M(x) holds,
cM (x) =
0, if M(x) does not hold.
is computable.

The predicate M(x) is undecidable if it is not decidable.

Recursive Set ⇔ Solvable Problem ⇔ Decidable Predicate.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 11/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Algebra of Decidability

Theorem. If A, B are recursive sets, then so are the sets A, A ∩ B,

A ∪ B, and A\B.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 12/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Algebra of Decidability

Theorem. If A, B are recursive sets, then so are the sets A, A ∩ B,

A ∪ B, and A\B.

Proof.
cA = 1−̇cA .

cA∩B = cA · cB .

cA∪B = max(cA , cB ).

cA\B = cA · cB .

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 12/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Reduction between Problems

A reduction is a way of defining a solution of a problem with the help

of the solutions of another problem.

In recursion theory we are only interested in reductions that are

computable.

There are several ways of reducing a problem to another.

The differences between different reductions from A to B consists in

the manner and extent to which information about B is allowed to
settle questions about A.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 13/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Many-One Reduction

The set A is many-one reducible, or m-reducible, to the set B if there

is a total computable function f such that

x ∈ A iff f (x) ∈ B

for all x.

We shall write A ≤m B or more explicitly f : A ≤m B.

If f is injective, then it is a one-one reducibility, denoted by ≤1 .

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 14/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Many-One Reduction

1. ≤m is reflexive and transitive.

2. A ≤m B iff A ≤m B.

3. A ≤m N iff A = N; A ≤m ∅ iff A = ∅.

4. N ≤m A iff A 6= ∅; ∅ ≤m A iff A 6= N.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 15/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Non-Recursive Set
Proposition. K = {x | x ∈ Wx } is not recursive.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 16/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Non-Recursive Set
Proposition. K = {x | x ∈ Wx } is not recursive.

Proof. If K were recursive, then the characteristic function


1, if x ∈ Wx ,
c(x) =
0, if x ∈/ Wx ,
would be computable.
Then the function g(x) defined by

0, if c(x) = 0,
g(x) =
undefined, if c(x) = 1.
would also be computable.
Let m be an index for g. Then
m ∈ Wm iff c(m) = 0 iff m ∈
/ Wm .

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 16/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Non-Recursive Set

Proposition. Neither Tot = {x | φx is total} nor {x | φx ≃ 0} is

recursive.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 17/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Non-Recursive Set

Proposition. Neither Tot = {x | φx is total} nor {x | φx ≃ 0} is

recursive.

Proof. Consider the function f defined by


0, if x ∈ Wx ,
f (x, y) =
undefined, if x ∈ / Wx .

By S-m-n Theorem there is a primitive recursive function k(x) such

that φk(x) (y) ≃ f (x, y).

It is clear that k : K ≤m Tot and k : K ≤m {x | φx ≃ 0}.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 17/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Rice Theorem

Henry Rice.
Classes of Recursively Enumerable Sets and their Decision Problems.
Transactions of the American mathematical Society, 77:358-366,
1953.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 18/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Rice Theorem

Rice Theorem. (1953)

If ∅ ( B ( C1 , then {x | φx ∈ B} is not recursive.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 19/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Rice Theorem

Rice Theorem. (1953)

If ∅ ( B ( C1 , then {x | φx ∈ B} is not recursive.

Proof. Suppose f∅ 6∈ B and g ∈ B. Let the function f be defined by


g(y), if x ∈ Wx ,
f (x, y) =
undefined, if x ∈
/ Wx .

By S-m-n Theorem there is some primitive recursive function k(x)

such that φk(x) (y) ≃ f (x, y).

It is clear that k is a many-one reduction from K to {x | φx ∈ B}.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 19/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Applying Rice Theorem

According to Rice Theorem the following sets are non-recursive:

Fin = {x | Wx is finite},
Inf = {x | Wx is infinite},
Cof = {x | Wx is cofinite},
Rec = {x | Wx is recursive},
Tot = {x | φx is total}

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 20/72
 Recursive Sets Decidable Predicate
Recursively Enumerable Set Reduction
Special Sets Rice Theorem

Remark on Rice Theorem

Rice Theorem deals with programme independent properties.

It talks about classes of computable functions rather than classes of
programmes.

All non-trivial semantic problems are algorithmically undecidable.

It is of no help to a proof that the set of all polynomial time Turing

Machines is undecidable.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 21/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Outline

1 Recursive Sets
Decidable Predicate
Reduction
Rice Theorem

2 Recursively Enumerable Set

Partial Decidable Predicates
Theorems

3 Special Sets
Productive Sets
Creative Set
Simple Sets

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 22/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Recursively Enumerable Set

The partial characteristic function of a set A is given by


1, if x ∈ A,
χA (x) =
undefined, if x ∈ / A.

A is recursively enumerable if χA (x) is computable.

Notation 1: A is also called semi-recursive set, semi-computable set.

Notation 2: subsets of Nn can be defined as r.e. by coding to r.e.
subsets of N.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 23/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Partially Decidable Predicate

A predicate M(x) of natural number is partially decidable if its partial

characteristic function

1, if M(x) holds,
χM (x) =
undefined, if M(x) does not hold,

is computable.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 24/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Partially Decidable Problem

A problem f : N → {0, 1} is partially decidable if dom(f ) is r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 25/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Partially Decidable Problem ⇔ Partially Decidable Predicate

⇔ Recursively Enumerable Set

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 26/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Quick Review

Theorem. A predicate M(x) is partially decidable iff there is a

computable function g(x) such that M(x) ⇔ x ∈ Dom(g).

Theorem. A predicate M(x) is partially decidable iff there is a

decidable predicate R(x, y) such that M(x) ⇔ ∃y.R(x, y).

Theorem. If M(x, y) is partially decidable, so is ∃y.M(x, y).

Corollary. If M(x, y) is partially decidable, so is ∃y.M(x, y).

Theorem. M(x) is decidable iff both M(x) and ¬M(x) are partially
decidable.

Theorem. Let f (x) be a partial function. Then f is computable iff the

predicate ‘f (x) ≃ y’ is partially decidable.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 27/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Some Important Decidable Predicates

For each n ≥ 1, the following predicates are primitive recursive:

def
1. Sn (e, x, y, t) = ‘Pe (x) ↓ y in t or fewer steps’.
def
2. Hn (e, x, t) = ‘Pe (x) ↓ in t or fewer steps’.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 28/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Some Important Decidable Predicates

For each n ≥ 1, the following predicates are primitive recursive:

def
1. Sn (e, x, y, t) = ‘Pe (x) ↓ y in t or fewer steps’.
def
2. Hn (e, x, t) = ‘Pe (x) ↓ in t or fewer steps’.

They are defined by

def
Sn (e, x, y, t) = jn (e, x, t) = 0 ∧ (cn (e, x, t))1 = y,
def
Hn (e, x, t) = jn (e, x, t) = 0.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 28/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Example
1. The halting problem is partially decidable. Its partial characteristic
function is given by

1, if Px (y) ↓,
χH (x, y) =
undefined, otherwise.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 29/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Example
1. The halting problem is partially decidable. Its partial characteristic
function is given by

1, if Px (y) ↓,
χH (x, y) =
undefined, otherwise.

2. K = {x | x ∈ Wx } is r.e., but not recursive.

Proof: χK (x) = 1(ψU (x, x)).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 29/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Example
1. The halting problem is partially decidable. Its partial characteristic
function is given by

1, if Px (y) ↓,
χH (x, y) =
undefined, otherwise.

2. K = {x | x ∈ Wx } is r.e., but not recursive.

Proof: χK (x) = 1(ψU (x, x)).

3. K = {x | x 6∈ Wx } is not r.e., (also not recursive).


1 if x 6∈ Wx
Proof: If yes, then define f (x) =
↑ if x ∈ Wx
Then x ∈ Dom(f ) ⇔ x 6∈ Wx . f is computable while Dom(f ) doesn’t
equal to any computable function. Contradiction!
CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 29/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Example (Cont.)

4. Any recursive set is r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 30/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Example (Cont.)

4. Any recursive set is r.e.

5. {x | Wx 6= ∅} is r.e.
Proof: Wx 6= ∅ ⇔ ∃y∃t(Px (y) ↓ in t steps).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 30/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Example (Cont.)

4. Any recursive set is r.e.

5. {x | Wx 6= ∅} is r.e.
Proof: Wx 6= ∅ ⇔ ∃y∃t(Px (y) ↓ in t steps).

6. If f is a computable function, then Ran(f ) is r.e.

Proof: Let φm be the Gödel coding of f .

x ∈ Em ⇔ ∃y∃t(Pm (y) ↓ x in t steps).

x ∈ Em is partial decidable ⇔ Ran(f ) is r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 30/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Index Theorem

Theorem. A set is r.e. iff it is the domain of a unary computable

function.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 31/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Index Theorem

Theorem. A set is r.e. iff it is the domain of a unary computable

function.

Proof:
“⇒": A is r.e. ⇒ χA is computable ⇒ “x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ χA ".
Thus A is the domain of unary computable function χA .

“⇐": If f is a unary computable function, let A = Dom(f ).

Then χA = 1(f (x)), which is computable.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 31/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Index Theorem

Theorem. A set is r.e. iff it is the domain of a unary computable

function.

Proof:
“⇒": A is r.e. ⇒ χA is computable ⇒ “x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ χA ".
Thus A is the domain of unary computable function χA .

“⇐": If f is a unary computable function, let A = Dom(f ).

Then χA = 1(f (x)), which is computable.

Notation (Index for Recursively Enumerable Set): W0 , W1 , W2 , . . . is

a repetitive enumeration of all r.e. sets. e is an index of A if A = We ,
end every r.e. set has an infinite number of indexes.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 31/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Normal Form Theorem

Theorem. The set A is r.e. iff there is a primitive recursive predicate

R(x, y) such that x ∈ A iff ∃y.R(x, y).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 32/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Normal Form Theorem

Theorem. The set A is r.e. iff there is a primitive recursive predicate

R(x, y) such that x ∈ A iff ∃y.R(x, y).

Proof. “⇐": If R(x, y) is primitive recursive and x ∈ A ⇔ ∃y.R(x, y),

then define g(x) = µyR(x, y).
Then g(x) is computable and x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ Dom(g).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 32/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Normal Form Theorem

Theorem. The set A is r.e. iff there is a primitive recursive predicate

R(x, y) such that x ∈ A iff ∃y.R(x, y).

Proof. “⇐": If R(x, y) is primitive recursive and x ∈ A ⇔ ∃y.R(x, y),

then define g(x) = µyR(x, y).
Then g(x) is computable and x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ Dom(g).

“⇒": suppose A is r.e., then χA is computable. Let P be program to

compute χA and R(x, y) be

P(x) ↓ in y steps.

Then R(x, y) is primitive recursive (decidable) and

x ∈ A ⇔ ∃y.R(x, y).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 32/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Quantifier Contraction Theorem

Theorem (Applying the Normal Form Theorem). If M(x, y) is

partially decidable, so is ∃y.M(x, y) ({x | ∃y.M(x, y)} is r.e.).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 33/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Quantifier Contraction Theorem

Theorem (Applying the Normal Form Theorem). If M(x, y) is

partially decidable, so is ∃y.M(x, y) ({x | ∃y.M(x, y)} is r.e.).

Proof. Let R(x, y, z) be a primitive recursive predicate such that

M(x, y) ⇔ ∃z.R(x, y, z).

Then ∃y.M(x, y) ⇔ ∃y.∃z.R(x, y, z) ⇔ ∃u.R(x, (u)0 , · · · , (u)m+1 ).

(u = 2y1 3y2 · · · pymm , pzm+1 , if y = (y1 , · · · , ym )).

By Normal Form Theorem, ∃y.M(x, y) is partially decidable, and

{x | ∃y.M(x, y)} is r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 33/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Uniformisation Theorem

Theorem (Applying the Normal Form Theorem). If R(x, y) is

partially decidable, then there is a computable function c(x) such that
c(x) ↓ iff ∃y.R(x, y) and c(x) ↓ implies R(x, c(x)).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 34/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Uniformisation Theorem

Theorem (Applying the Normal Form Theorem). If R(x, y) is

partially decidable, then there is a computable function c(x) such that
c(x) ↓ iff ∃y.R(x, y) and c(x) ↓ implies R(x, c(x)).

We may think of c(x) as a choice function for R(x, y). The theorem
states that the choice function is computable.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 34/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Complementation Theorem

Theorem. A is recursive iff A and A are r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 35/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Complementation Theorem

Theorem. A is recursive iff A and A are r.e.

Proof. “⇒": If A is recursive, then χA and χA are computable.

Thus ⇒ A and A are r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 35/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Complementation Theorem

Theorem. A is recursive iff A and A are r.e.

Proof. “⇒": If A is recursive, then χA and χA are computable.

Thus ⇒ A and A are r.e.

“⇐": Suppose A and A are r.e. Then some primitive recursive

predicates R(x, y), S(x, y) exist such that

x ∈ A ⇔ ∃yR(x, y),
x ∈ A ⇔ ∃yS(x, y).

Now let f (x) = µy(R(x, y) ∨ S(x, y)).

Since either x ∈ A or x ∈ A holds, f (x) is total and computable, and

x ∈ A ⇔ R(x, f (x)). Thus x ∈ A is decidable ⇒ A is recursive.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 35/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

The Hardest Recursively Enumerable Set

Fact. If A ≤m B and B is r.e. then A is r.e..

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 36/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

The Hardest Recursively Enumerable Set

Fact. If A ≤m B and B is r.e. then A is r.e..

Theorem. A is r.e. iff A ≤m K.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 36/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

The Hardest Recursively Enumerable Set

Fact. If A ≤m B and B is r.e. then A is r.e..

Theorem. A is r.e. iff A ≤m K.

Proof. Suppose A is r.e. Let f (x, y) be defined by


1, if x ∈ A,
f (x, y) =
undefined, if x ∈ / A.

By S-m-n Theorem there is a total computable function s(x) such that

f (x, y) = φs(x) (y). It is clear that x ∈ A iff s(x) ∈ K.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 36/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

The Hardest Recursively Enumerable Set

Fact. If A ≤m B and B is r.e. then A is r.e..

Theorem. A is r.e. iff A ≤m K.

Proof. Suppose A is r.e. Let f (x, y) be defined by


1, if x ∈ A,
f (x, y) =
undefined, if x ∈ / A.

By S-m-n Theorem there is a total computable function s(x) such that

f (x, y) = φs(x) (y). It is clear that x ∈ A iff s(x) ∈ K.

No r.e. set is more difficult than K.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 36/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Applying Complementation Theorem

Proposition. If A is r.e. but not recursive, then A 6≤m A 6≤m A.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 37/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Applying Complementation Theorem

Proposition. If A is r.e. but not recursive, then A 6≤m A 6≤m A.

It contradicts to our intuition that A and A are equally difficult.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 37/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Graph Theorem

Theorem. Let f (x) be a partial function. Then f (x) is computable iff

the predicate ‘f (x) ≃ y’ is partially decidable iff {π(x, y) | f (x) ≃ y}
is r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 38/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Graph Theorem

Theorem. Let f (x) be a partial function. Then f (x) is computable iff

the predicate ‘f (x) ≃ y’ is partially decidable iff {π(x, y) | f (x) ≃ y}
is r.e.

Proof. If f (x) is computable by P(x), then

f (x) ≃ y ⇔ ∃t.(P(x) ↓ y in t steps).

The predicate ‘P(x) ↓ y in t steps’ is primitive recursive.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 38/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Graph Theorem

Theorem. Let f (x) be a partial function. Then f (x) is computable iff

the predicate ‘f (x) ≃ y’ is partially decidable iff {π(x, y) | f (x) ≃ y}
is r.e.

Proof. If f (x) is computable by P(x), then

f (x) ≃ y ⇔ ∃t.(P(x) ↓ y in t steps).

The predicate ‘P(x) ↓ y in t steps’ is primitive recursive.

Conversely let R(x, y, t) be such that

f (x) ≃ y ⇔ ∃t.R(x, y, t).

Now f (x) = µy.R(x, y, µt.R(x, y, t)).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 38/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Listing Theorem
Listing Theorem. A is r.e. iff either A = ∅ or A is the range of a
unary total computable function.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 39/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Listing Theorem
Listing Theorem. A is r.e. iff either A = ∅ or A is the range of a
unary total computable function.

Proof. Suppose A is nonempty and its partial characteristic function is

computed by P. Let a be a member of A. The total function g(x, t)
given by 
x, if P(x) ↓ in t steps,
g(x, t) =
a, if otherwise.
is computable. Clearly A is the range of h(z) = g((z)1 , (z)2 ).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 39/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Listing Theorem
Listing Theorem. A is r.e. iff either A = ∅ or A is the range of a
unary total computable function.

Proof. Suppose A is nonempty and its partial characteristic function is

computed by P. Let a be a member of A. The total function g(x, t)
given by 
x, if P(x) ↓ in t steps,
g(x, t) =
a, if otherwise.
is computable. Clearly A is the range of h(z) = g((z)1 , (z)2 ).

The converse follows from Graph Theorem.

Suppose A = Ran(h), then

x ∈ A ⇔ ∃y(h(y) ≃ x) ⇔ ∃y∃t(P(y) ↓ x in t steps)

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 39/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Listing Theorem

It gives rise to the terminology recursively enumerable.

The elements of a r.e. set can be effectively generated. E.g., A can be

enumerated as A = {h(0), h(1), · · · , h(n), · · · }, where h is a primitive
recursive function.

{E0 , E1 , · · · , En , · · · } is another enumeration of all r.e. sets.

R.e. set are effectively generated sets, which is a list compiled by an

informal effective procedure (may go on ad infinitum).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 40/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

An Example

The set {x | if there is a run of exactly x consecutive 7’s in the decimal

expansion of π} is r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 41/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

An Example

The set {x | if there is a run of exactly x consecutive 7’s in the decimal

expansion of π} is r.e.

Proof. Run an algorithm that computes successive digits in the

decimal expansion of π. Each time a run of 7s appears, count the
number of consecutive 7s in the run and add this number to the list.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 41/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Applying Listing Theorem

A set is r.e. iff it is the range of a computable function.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 42/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Applying Listing Theorem

A set is r.e. iff it is the range of a computable function.

Equivalence Theorem. Let A ⊆ N. Then the following are

equivalent:
(a). A is r.e.
(b). A = ∅ or A is the range of a unary total computable function.
(c). A is the range of a (partial) computable function.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 42/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Applying Listing Theorem

Theorem. Every infinite r.e. set has an infinite recursive subset.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 43/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Applying Listing Theorem

Theorem. Every infinite r.e. set has an infinite recursive subset.

Proof. Suppose A = Ran(f ) where f is a total computable function.

An infinite recursive subset is enumerated by the total increasing
computable function g given by

g(0) = f (0),
g(n + 1) = f (µy(f (y) > g(n))).

(g is total since A = Ran(f ) is infinite. g is computable by

minimalisation and recursion).
Ran(g) is an infinite recursive subset of A.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 43/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Applying Listing Theorem

Theorem. An infinite set is recursive iff it is the range of a total
increasing computable function (if it can be recursively enumerated in
increasing order).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 44/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Applying Listing Theorem

Theorem. An infinite set is recursive iff it is the range of a total
increasing computable function (if it can be recursively enumerated in
increasing order).

Proof.“⇒" Suppose A is recursive and infinite. Then A is enumerated

by the increasing function f given by
f (0) = µy(y ∈ A),
f (n + 1) = µy(y ∈ A ∧ y > f (n)).
f is total since A is infinite. f is computable by minimalisation and
recursion. Ran(g) is an infinite recursive subset of A.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 44/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Applying Listing Theorem

Theorem. An infinite set is recursive iff it is the range of a total
increasing computable function (if it can be recursively enumerated in
increasing order).

Proof.“⇒" Suppose A is recursive and infinite. Then A is enumerated

by the increasing function f given by
f (0) = µy(y ∈ A),
f (n + 1) = µy(y ∈ A ∧ y > f (n)).
f is total since A is infinite. f is computable by minimalisation and
recursion. Ran(g) is an infinite recursive subset of A.

“⇐": Suppose A is the range of the computable total increasing

function f ; i.e., f (0) < f (1) < f (2) < · · · It is clear that if y = f (n)
then n ≤ y. Hence
y ∈ A ⇔ y ∈ Ran(f ) ⇔ ∃n ≤ y(f (n) = y)
CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 44/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Applying Listing Theorem

Theorem. The set {x | φx is total} is not r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 45/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Applying Listing Theorem

Theorem. The set {x | φx is total} is not r.e.

Proof. If {x | φx is total} were a r.e. set, then there would be a total

computable function f whose range is the r.e. set.
The function g(x) given by g(x) = φf (x) (x) + 1 would be total and
computable.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 45/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

An Alternative Proof

 f (x, y) =
Let
1 if Px (x) does not converge in y or fewer steps,
undefined otherwise.

Since f (x, y) is computable by Church’s Thesis, from s-m-n theorem,

there is a total computable function k(x), such that φk(x) (y) ≃ f (x, y).

From the definition of f , we have


x ∈ Wx ⇒ (∃y)(Px (x) converges in y steps) ⇒ φk(x) is not total
x 6∈ Wx ⇒ (∀y)(Px (x) does not converge in y steps) ⇒ φk(x) is total

Therefore, ‘x 6∈ Wx ’ iff. ‘φk(x) is total’. We have ‘φx is total’ is not

partially computable.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 46/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Closure Theorem

Theorem. The recursively enumerable sets are closed under union

and intersection uniformly and effectively.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 47/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Closure Theorem

Theorem. The recursively enumerable sets are closed under union

and intersection uniformly and effectively.

Proof. According to S-m-n Theorem there are primitive recursive

functions r(x, y), s(x, y) such that

Wr(x,y) = Wx ∪ Wy ,
Ws(x,y) = Wx ∩ Wy .

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 47/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Closure Theorem

Theorem. The recursively enumerable sets are closed under union

and intersection uniformly and effectively.

Proof. According to S-m-n Theorem there are primitive recursive

functions r(x, y), s(x, y) such that

Wr(x,y) = Wx ∪ Wy ,
Ws(x,y) = Wx ∩ Wy .

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 47/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Rice-Shapiro Theorem

Rice-Shapiro Theorem. Suppose that A is a set of unary

computable functions such that the set {x | φx ∈ A } is r.e. Then for
any unary computable function f , f ∈ A iff there is a finite function
θ ⊆ f with θ ∈ A .

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 48/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Proof of Rice-Shapiro Theorem

Suppose A = {x | φx ∈ A } is r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 49/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Proof of Rice-Shapiro Theorem

Suppose A = {x | φx ∈ A } is r.e.

Suppose f ∈ A but ∀ finite θ ⊆ f .θ ∈

/ A.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 49/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Proof of Rice-Shapiro Theorem

Suppose A = {x | φx ∈ A } is r.e.

Suppose f ∈ A but ∀ finite θ ⊆ f .θ ∈

/ A.

Let P be a partial characteristic function of K.

Define the computable function g(z, t) by

f (t), if P(z) 6↓ in t steps,
g(z, t) ≃
↑, otherwise.

According to S-m-n Theorem, there is a primitive recursive function

s(z) such that g(z, t) ≃ φs(z) (t).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 49/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Proof of Rice-Shapiro Theorem

Suppose A = {x | φx ∈ A } is r.e.

Suppose f ∈ A but ∀ finite θ ⊆ f .θ ∈

/ A.

Let P be a partial characteristic function of K.

Define the computable function g(z, t) by

f (t), if P(z) 6↓ in t steps,
g(z, t) ≃
↑, otherwise.

According to S-m-n Theorem, there is a primitive recursive function

s(z) such that g(z, t) ≃ φs(z) (t).

By construction φs(z) ⊆ f for all z.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 49/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Proof of Rice-Shapiro Theorem

Suppose A = {x | φx ∈ A } is r.e.

Suppose f ∈ A but ∀ finite θ ⊆ f .θ ∈

/ A.

Let P be a partial characteristic function of K.

Define the computable function g(z, t) by

f (t), if P(z) 6↓ in t steps,
g(z, t) ≃
↑, otherwise.

According to S-m-n Theorem, there is a primitive recursive function

s(z) such that g(z, t) ≃ φs(z) (t).

By construction φs(z) ⊆ f for all z.

z ∈ K ⇒ φs(z) is finite ⇒ s(z) ∈

/ A;
z∈/ K ⇒ φs(z) = f ⇒ s(z) ∈ A.
CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 49/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Proof of Rice-Shapiro Theorem

Suppose f is a computable function and there is a finite θ ∈ A such

that θ ⊆ f and f ∈
/ A.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 50/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Proof of Rice-Shapiro Theorem

Suppose f is a computable function and there is a finite θ ∈ A such

that θ ⊆ f and f ∈
/ A.

Define the computable function g(z, t) by


f (t), if t ∈ Dom(θ) ∨ z ∈ K,
g(z, t) ≃
↑, otherwise.

According to S-m-n Theorem, there is a primitive recursive function

s(z) such that g(z, t) ≃ φs(z) (t).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 50/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Proof of Rice-Shapiro Theorem

Suppose f is a computable function and there is a finite θ ∈ A such

that θ ⊆ f and f ∈
/ A.

Define the computable function g(z, t) by


f (t), if t ∈ Dom(θ) ∨ z ∈ K,
g(z, t) ≃
↑, otherwise.

According to S-m-n Theorem, there is a primitive recursive function

s(z) such that g(z, t) ≃ φs(z) (t).

z ∈ K ⇒ φs(z) = f ⇒ s(z) ∈
/ A;
z∈/ K ⇒ φs(z) = θ ⇒ s(z) ∈ A.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 50/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Reversing Rice-Shapiro Theorem

{x | φx ∈ A } is r.e. if the following hold:

(1) Θ = {g(θ) | θ ∈ A and θ is finite} is r.e., where g is a canonical

encoding of the finite functions.

(2) ∀f ∈ A , ∃ finite θ ∈ A , θ ⊆ f .

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 51/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Corollary

The sets {x | φx is total} and {x | φx is not total} are not r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 52/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Corollary

The sets {x | φx is total} and {x | φx is not total} are not r.e.

Proof. Consider the set A = {f | f ∈ C1 ∧ f is total}. For no f ∈ A

is there a finite θ ⊆ f with θ ∈ A . Hence {x | φx is total} is not r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 52/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Corollary

The sets {x | φx is total} and {x | φx is not total} are not r.e.

Proof. Consider the set A = {f | f ∈ C1 ∧ f is total}. For no f ∈ A

is there a finite θ ⊆ f with θ ∈ A . Hence {x | φx is total} is not r.e.

Consider the set B = {f | f ∈ C1 ∧ f is not total}. Then if f is any

total computable function, f 6∈ B; but every finite function θ ⊆ f is in
B. Hence {x | φx is not total} is not r.e. by Rice-Shapiro theorem.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 52/72
 Recursive Sets
Partial Decidable Predicates
Recursively Enumerable Set
Theorems
Special Sets

Applying Rice-Shapiro Theorem

The following sets are not recursively enumerable:

Fin = {x | Wx is finite},
Inf = {x | Wx is infinite},
Cof = {x | Wx is cofinite},
Rec = {x | Wx is recursive},
Tot = {x | φx is total},
Con = {x | φx is total and constant},
Ext = {x | φx is extensible to a total recursive function}.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 53/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Outline

1 Recursive Sets
Decidable Predicate
Reduction
Rice Theorem

2 Recursively Enumerable Set

Partial Decidable Predicates
Theorems

3 Special Sets
Productive Sets
Creative Set
Simple Sets

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 54/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Non-r.e. Sets

Target. We consider non-r.e. sets to form creative sets. Suppose A is

any non-r.e. set, then if Wx is an r.e. set contained in A, there must be
a number y ∈ A\Wx . This number y is a witness of A 6= Wx .

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 55/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Non-r.e. Sets

Target. We consider non-r.e. sets to form creative sets. Suppose A is

any non-r.e. set, then if Wx is an r.e. set contained in A, there must be
a number y ∈ A\Wx . This number y is a witness of A 6= Wx .

Example. Consider K = {x | x 6∈ Wx }

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 55/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Non-r.e. Sets

Target. We consider non-r.e. sets to form creative sets. Suppose A is

any non-r.e. set, then if Wx is an r.e. set contained in A, there must be
a number y ∈ A\Wx . This number y is a witness of A 6= Wx .

Example. Consider K = {x | x 6∈ Wx }

Suppose Wx ⊆ K. Then x ∈ K \ Wx . So x is a witness that the

inclusion Wx ⊆ K is strict.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 55/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Non-r.e. Sets

Target. We consider non-r.e. sets to form creative sets. Suppose A is

any non-r.e. set, then if Wx is an r.e. set contained in A, there must be
a number y ∈ A\Wx . This number y is a witness of A 6= Wx .

Example. Consider K = {x | x 6∈ Wx }

Suppose Wx ⊆ K. Then x ∈ K \ Wx . So x is a witness that the

inclusion Wx ⊆ K is strict.

We call K productive.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 55/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Productive Sets

Definition. A set A is productive if

there is a total computable function
g such that whenever Wx ⊆ A, then
g(x) ∈ A \ Wx .

The function is called a productive

function for A.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 56/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Productive Sets

Definition. A set A is productive if

there is a total computable function
g such that whenever Wx ⊆ A, then
g(x) ∈ A \ Wx .

The function is called a productive

function for A.
Fig. A productive set
Notation. A productive set is not r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 56/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Productive Sets

Definition. A set A is productive if

there is a total computable function
g such that whenever Wx ⊆ A, then
g(x) ∈ A \ Wx .

The function is called a productive

function for A.
Fig. A productive set
Notation. A productive set is not r.e.

Example. K is productive with productive function g(x) = x.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 56/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Reduction Theorem
Theorem. Suppose that A and B are sets such that A is productive,
and there is a total computable function such that x ∈ A iff f (x) ∈ B.
Then B is productive.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 57/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Reduction Theorem
Theorem. Suppose that A and B are sets such that A is productive,
and there is a total computable function such that x ∈ A iff f (x) ∈ B.
Then B is productive.

Proof. Suppose Wx ⊆ B. Then Wz = f −1 (Wx ) ⊆ f −1 (B) = A for

some z.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 57/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Reduction Theorem
Theorem. Suppose that A and B are sets such that A is productive,
and there is a total computable function such that x ∈ A iff f (x) ∈ B.
Then B is productive.

Proof. Suppose Wx ⊆ B. Then Wz = f −1 (Wx ) ⊆ f −1 (B) = A for

some z.

Moreover, f −1 (Wx ) is r.e. (by substitution), so there is a z such that

f −1 (Wx ) = Wz . Now Wz ⊆ A, and g(z) ∈ A \ Wz . Hence
f (g(z)) ∈ B \ Wx .

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 57/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Reduction Theorem
Theorem. Suppose that A and B are sets such that A is productive,
and there is a total computable function such that x ∈ A iff f (x) ∈ B.
Then B is productive.

Proof. Suppose Wx ⊆ B. Then Wz = f −1 (Wx ) ⊆ f −1 (B) = A for

some z.

Moreover, f −1 (Wx ) is r.e. (by substitution), so there is a z such that

f −1 (Wx ) = Wz . Now Wz ⊆ A, and g(z) ∈ A \ Wz . Hence
f (g(z)) ∈ B \ Wx .

f (g(z)) is a witness to the fact that Wx 6= B.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 57/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Reduction Theorem
Theorem. Suppose that A and B are sets such that A is productive,
and there is a total computable function such that x ∈ A iff f (x) ∈ B.
Then B is productive.

Proof. Suppose Wx ⊆ B. Then Wz = f −1 (Wx ) ⊆ f −1 (B) = A for

some z.

Moreover, f −1 (Wx ) is r.e. (by substitution), so there is a z such that

f −1 (Wx ) = Wz . Now Wz ⊆ A, and g(z) ∈ A \ Wz . Hence
f (g(z)) ∈ B \ Wx .

f (g(z)) is a witness to the fact that Wx 6= B.

We now need to obtain the witness f (g(z)) effectively from x. Apply

the s-m-n theorem to φx (f (y)), one gets a total computable function
k(x) such that φk(x) (y) = φx (f (y)). Then Wk(x) = f −1 (Wx ). It follows
that f (g(k(x))) ∈ B \ Wx .
CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 57/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Proof

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 58/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Examples

1. {x | φx 6= 0} is productive.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 59/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Examples

1. {x | φx 6= 0} is productive.

0 if x ∈ Wx
Proof. f (x, y) = . Reduce from K.
↑ if x 6∈ Wx

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 59/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Examples

1. {x | φx 6= 0} is productive.

0 if x ∈ Wx
Proof. f (x, y) = . Reduce from K.
↑ if x 6∈ Wx

2. {x | c ∈
/ Wx } is productive.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 59/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Examples

1. {x | φx 6= 0} is productive.

0 if x ∈ Wx
Proof. f (x, y) = . Reduce from K.
↑ if x 6∈ Wx

2. {x | c ∈
/ Wx } is productive.

y if x ∈ Wx
Proof. f (x, y) = . Reduce from K.
↑ if x 6∈ Wx

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 59/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Examples

1. {x | φx 6= 0} is productive.

0 if x ∈ Wx
Proof. f (x, y) = . Reduce from K.
↑ if x 6∈ Wx

2. {x | c ∈
/ Wx } is productive.

y if x ∈ Wx
Proof. f (x, y) = . Reduce from K.
↑ if x 6∈ Wx

3. {x | c ∈
/ Ex } is productive.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 59/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Application of Rich’s Theorem

Theorem. Suppose that B is a set of unary computable functions with
f∅ ∈ B and B 6= C1 . Then the set B = {x | φx ∈ B} is productive.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 60/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Application of Rich’s Theorem

Theorem. Suppose that B is a set of unary computable functions with
f∅ ∈ B and B 6= C1 . Then the set B = {x | φx ∈ B} is productive.

Proof. Choose a computable function g ∈

/ B. Consider function f
defined by 
g(y), if x ∈ Wx ,
f (x, y) =
↑, if x ∈
/ Wx .

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 60/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Application of Rich’s Theorem

Theorem. Suppose that B is a set of unary computable functions with
f∅ ∈ B and B 6= C1 . Then the set B = {x | φx ∈ B} is productive.

Proof. Choose a computable function g ∈

/ B. Consider function f
defined by 
g(y), if x ∈ Wx ,
f (x, y) =
↑, if x ∈
/ Wx .
By s-m-n theorem there is some total computable function k(x) such
that φk(x) (y) ≃ f (x, y).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 60/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Application of Rich’s Theorem

Theorem. Suppose that B is a set of unary computable functions with
f∅ ∈ B and B 6= C1 . Then the set B = {x | φx ∈ B} is productive.

Proof. Choose a computable function g ∈

/ B. Consider function f
defined by 
g(y), if x ∈ Wx ,
f (x, y) =
↑, if x ∈
/ Wx .
By s-m-n theorem there is some total computable function k(x) such
that φk(x) (y) ≃ f (x, y).

It is clear that x ∈ Wx iff φk(x) = g iff φk(x) ∈

/ B. Thus x ∈ K iff
k(x) ∈ B.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 60/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Application of Rich’s Theorem

Theorem. Suppose that B is a set of unary computable functions with
f∅ ∈ B and B 6= C1 . Then the set B = {x | φx ∈ B} is productive.

Proof. Choose a computable function g ∈

/ B. Consider function f
defined by 
g(y), if x ∈ Wx ,
f (x, y) =
↑, if x ∈
/ Wx .
By s-m-n theorem there is some total computable function k(x) such
that φk(x) (y) ≃ f (x, y).

It is clear that x ∈ Wx iff φk(x) = g iff φk(x) ∈

/ B. Thus x ∈ K iff
k(x) ∈ B.

Example. {x | φx is not total} is productive.

(B = {f | f ∈ C1 ∧ f is not total}.)
CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 60/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Creative Sets

Definition. A set A is creative if it is r.e. and its complement A is

productive.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 61/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Creative Sets

Definition. A set A is creative if it is r.e. and its complement A is

productive.

Example. K is creative. (The simplest example of a creative set).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 61/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Creative Sets

Definition. A set A is creative if it is r.e. and its complement A is

productive.

Example. K is creative. (The simplest example of a creative set).

Notation. From the theorem that A is recursive ⇔ A and A are r.e. we

can say that a creative set is an r.e. set that fails to be recursive in a
very strong way. (Creative sets are r.e. sets having the most difficult
decision problem.)

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 61/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Examples

1. {x | c ∈ Wx } is creative.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 62/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Examples

1. {x | c ∈ Wx } is creative.

2. {x | c ∈ Ex } is creative.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 62/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Examples

1. {x | c ∈ Wx } is creative.

2. {x | c ∈ Ex } is creative.

3. A = {x | φx (x) = 0} is creative.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 62/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Examples

1. {x | c ∈ Wx } is creative.

2. {x | c ∈ Ex } is creative.

3. A = {x | φx (x) = 0} is creative.
Proof. A is r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 62/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Examples

1. {x | c ∈ Wx } is creative.

2. {x | c ∈ Ex } is creative.

3. A = {x | φx (x) = 0} is creative.
Proof. A is r.e.
To obtain a productive function for A, by s-m-n theorem one gets a
total computable function g(x) such that φg(x) (y) = 0 ⇔ φx (y) is
defined.
Then g(x) ∈ A ⇔ g(x) ∈ Wx . So if Wx ⊆ A we must have
g(x) ∈ A \ Wx .
Thus g is a productive function for A.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 62/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Application of Rice’s Theorem

Theorem. Suppose that A ⊆ C1 and let A = {x | φx ∈ A }. If A is

r.e. and A 6= ∅, N, then A is creative.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 63/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Application of Rice’s Theorem

Theorem. Suppose that A ⊆ C1 and let A = {x | φx ∈ A }. If A is

r.e. and A 6= ∅, N, then A is creative.

Proof. Suppose A is r.e. and A 6= ∅, N.

If f∅ ∈ A , then A is productive by the previous theorem. This is a

contradiction.

Thus f∅ 6∈ A . A is productive by the same theorem. Hence A is

creative.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 63/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Examples

1. A = {x | c ∈ Wx } is creative. It corresponds to
A = {f ∈ C1 | f (c) ↓}.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 64/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Examples

1. A = {x | c ∈ Wx } is creative. It corresponds to
A = {f ∈ C1 | f (c) ↓}.

2. A = {x | c ∈ Ex } is creative. It corresponds to
A = {f ∈ C1 | ∃x(f (x) ↓ c)}.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 64/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Examples

1. A = {x | c ∈ Wx } is creative. It corresponds to
A = {f ∈ C1 | f (c) ↓}.

2. A = {x | c ∈ Ex } is creative. It corresponds to
A = {f ∈ C1 | ∃x(f (x) ↓ c)}.

3. A = {x | Wx 6= ∅} is creative. It corresponds to
A = {f ∈ C1 | f 6= f∅ }.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 64/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Discussion

Question. Are all non-recursive r.e. sets creative?

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 65/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Discussion

Question. Are all non-recursive r.e. sets creative?

The answer is negative. By a special construction we can obtain

r.e.sets that are neither recursive nor creative.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 65/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Subset Theorem

Lemma. Suppose that g is a total computable function. Then there is

a total computable function k such that for all x, Wk(x) = Wx ∪ {g(x)}.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 66/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Subset Theorem

Lemma. Suppose that g is a total computable function. Then there is

a total computable function k such that for all x, Wk(x) = Wx ∪ {g(x)}.

Proof. Using the s-m-n theorem, take k(x) to be a total computable

function such that

1, if y ∈ Wx ∨ y = g(x),
φk(x) (y) = .
↑, otherwise

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 66/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Subset Theorem
Theorem. A productive set contains an infinite r.e. subset.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 67/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Subset Theorem
Theorem. A productive set contains an infinite r.e. subset.

Proof. Let A be a productive set with productive function g. The idea

is to enumerate a non-repetitive infinite set B = {y0 , y1 , · · · } ⊆ A.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 67/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Subset Theorem
Theorem. A productive set contains an infinite r.e. subset.

Proof. Let A be a productive set with productive function g. The idea

is to enumerate a non-repetitive infinite set B = {y0 , y1 , · · · } ⊆ A.
Take e0 to be some index for We0 = ∅. Since We0 ⊆ A, g(e0 ) ∈ A.
Put y0 = g(e0 ) ∈ A.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 67/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Subset Theorem
Theorem. A productive set contains an infinite r.e. subset.

Proof. Let A be a productive set with productive function g. The idea

is to enumerate a non-repetitive infinite set B = {y0 , y1 , · · · } ⊆ A.
Take e0 to be some index for We0 = ∅. Since We0 ⊆ A, g(e0 ) ∈ A.
Put y0 = g(e0 ) ∈ A.
For n ≥ 0, assume {y0 , · · · , yn } ⊆ A. Find an en+1 s.t.
{y0 , · · · , yn } = Wen+1 ⊆ A. Then g(en+1 ) ∈ A\Wen+1 . Thus if we put
yn+1 = g(en+1 ), we have yn+1 ∈ A and yn+1 6= y0 , · · · , yn .

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 67/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Subset Theorem
Theorem. A productive set contains an infinite r.e. subset.

Proof. Let A be a productive set with productive function g. The idea

is to enumerate a non-repetitive infinite set B = {y0 , y1 , · · · } ⊆ A.
Take e0 to be some index for We0 = ∅. Since We0 ⊆ A, g(e0 ) ∈ A.
Put y0 = g(e0 ) ∈ A.
For n ≥ 0, assume {y0 , · · · , yn } ⊆ A. Find an en+1 s.t.
{y0 , · · · , yn } = Wen+1 ⊆ A. Then g(en+1 ) ∈ A\Wen+1 . Thus if we put
yn+1 = g(en+1 ), we have yn+1 ∈ A and yn+1 6= y0 , · · · , yn .
By the Lemma there is some total computable function k such that for
all x, Wk(x) = Wx ∪ {g(x)}. So the infinite set {e0 , . . . , kn (e0 ), . . .} is
r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 67/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Subset Theorem
Theorem. A productive set contains an infinite r.e. subset.

Proof. Let A be a productive set with productive function g. The idea

is to enumerate a non-repetitive infinite set B = {y0 , y1 , · · · } ⊆ A.
Take e0 to be some index for We0 = ∅. Since We0 ⊆ A, g(e0 ) ∈ A.
Put y0 = g(e0 ) ∈ A.
For n ≥ 0, assume {y0 , · · · , yn } ⊆ A. Find an en+1 s.t.
{y0 , · · · , yn } = Wen+1 ⊆ A. Then g(en+1 ) ∈ A\Wen+1 . Thus if we put
yn+1 = g(en+1 ), we have yn+1 ∈ A and yn+1 6= y0 , · · · , yn .
By the Lemma there is some total computable function k such that for
all x, Wk(x) = Wx ∪ {g(x)}. So the infinite set {e0 , . . . , kn (e0 ), . . .} is
r.e.

It follows that the infinite set {g(e0 ), . . . , g(kn (e0 )), . . .} is a r.e.
subset of A.
CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 67/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Illumination

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 68/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Corollary

If A is creative, then A contains an infinite r.e. subset.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 69/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Simple Sets

Definition. A set A is simple if

(i) A is r.e.,
(ii) A is infinite,
(iii) A contains no infinite r.e. subset.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 70/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Simple Sets

Theorem. A simple set is neither recursive nor creative.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 71/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Simple Sets

Theorem. A simple set is neither recursive nor creative.

Proof. Since A can not be r.e., A can not be recursive.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 71/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Simple Sets

Theorem. A simple set is neither recursive nor creative.

Proof. Since A can not be r.e., A can not be recursive.

(iii) implies that A can not be creative.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 71/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Simple Sets

Theorem. There is a simple set.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 72/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Simple Sets

Theorem. There is a simple set.

Proof. Define f (x) = φx (µz(φx (z) > 2x)). Let A be Ran(f ).

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 72/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Simple Sets

Theorem. There is a simple set.

Proof. Define f (x) = φx (µz(φx (z) > 2x)). Let A be Ran(f ).

(i) A is r.e.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 72/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Simple Sets

Theorem. There is a simple set.

Proof. Define f (x) = φx (µz(φx (z) > 2x)). Let A be Ran(f ).

(i) A is r.e.

(ii) A is infinite. This is because A ∩ {0, 1, . . . , 2n} contains at most

the elements {f (0), f (1), . . . , f (n − 1)}.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 72/72
 Recursive Sets Productive Sets
Recursively Enumerable Set Creative Set
Special Sets Simple Sets

Simple Sets

Theorem. There is a simple set.

Proof. Define f (x) = φx (µz(φx (z) > 2x)). Let A be Ran(f ).

(i) A is r.e.

(ii) A is infinite. This is because A ∩ {0, 1, . . . , 2n} contains at most

the elements {f (0), f (1), . . . , f (n − 1)}.

(iii) Suppose B is an infinite r.e. set. Then there is a total computable

function φb such that B = Eb . Since φb is total, f (b) is defined and
f (b) ∈ A. Hence B 6⊆ A.

CSC363-Computability Theory@SJTU Xiaofeng Gao Recursive and Recursively Enumerable Set 72/72