Coordinate Systems

Coordinate systems are really nothing more than a way to define a point in space. For instance
in the Cartesian coordinate system at point is given the coordinates ( x, y ) and we use this to
define the point by starting at the origin and then moving x units horizontally followed by y units
vertically. This is shown in figure 1 below.

Figure 1
This is not, however, the only way to define a point in two dimensional space. Instead of
moving vertically and horizontally from the origin to get to the point we could instead go straight
out of the origin until we hit the point and then determine the angle this line makes with the
positive x-axis. We could then use the distance of the point from the origin and the amount we
needed to rotate from the positive x-axis as the coordinates of the point.

Polar Coordinate System

The polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate system in which the position of
each point on the plane is determined by an angle and a distance r. In other words, in polar
coordinates, we identify a point by a direction and distance from the origin. The distance is
usually denoted by θ. Thus, in this system, the coordinates of a point in the plane is identified by
the ordered pair (r, θ). This is shown in figure 2 below.

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 Figure 2

The two quantities r and θ are determined as follows: First we need some reference points. Recall
that in Cartesian coordinates system, everything was measured with respect to the coordinate axes. In
polar coordinate system, everything is measured with respect to a fixed point called the pole and an
axis called the polar axis. The pole is equivalent to the origin in Cartesian coordinate system. The
polar axis corresponds to the positive x-axis. The figure 3 below shows the two points and their
representation in the polar coordinate system.

Figure 3

Why do we need another coordinate system?

Cartesian coordinates are not best suited for every shape. Certain shapes, including circular ones,
cannot even be represented as a function in the Cartesian coordinate system. These shapes are
easily represented in polar coordinates.

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Converting between Polar and Cartesian coordinate system

1. From Polar to Cartesian Coordinates

The polar coordinates r and θ can be converted to the Cartesian coordinates x and y by using
the trigonometric functions sine and cosine:

x  r cos

y  r sin 

From Cartesian to Polar Coordinates

Given x and y, we can find r and θ by:

r  x2  y2

y
tan  
x
Examples


1. Convert  4, 2
3
 into Cartesian coordinates
Given r  4 ,   2
3
x  r cos =  4 cos 2  3 2
y  r sin  =  4 sin 2  3   2 3


Thus the point  4, 2
3
 = (2,2 3) in Cartesian coordinates

 2 2
2. Convert  ,  into polar coordinates

 2 2 
2 2
Given x  , y
2 2

3
 2 2
 2  2 2 2 1 1
r       = 1 1
 2   2  = 4 4
=
2 2
   

r 1

2
tan   2 =1
2
2


  tan 1 (1) = 45 
4



4
 2 2  
Thus  ,  = 1,  in polar coordinates

 2 2   4

Cylindrical Coordinates

We can extend polar coordinates to three dimensions simply by adding a z coordinate; this is
called cylindrical coordinates. In this coordinate system, each point P is represented by three
coordinates (r, θ, z) where r and θ are the polar coordinates of the projection of P onto the x-y
plane and z has the same meaning as in cartesian coordinates. Figure 4 below shows cylindrical
coordinates. Not only is it an extension of polar coordinates, but we extend it into the third
dimension just as we extend Cartesian coordinates into the third dimension. All that we do is
add a z on as the third coordinate. The r and θ are the same as with polar coordinates.

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 Figure 4

The conversions for x and y are the same conversions that we used back when we were looking
at polar coordinates. So, if we have a point in cylindrical coordinates the Cartesian coordinates
can be found by using the following conversions.

x  r cos

y  r sin 

zz

The third equation is just an acknowledgement that the z-coordinate of a point in Cartesian and
polar coordinates is the same.

Likewise, if we have a point in Cartesian coordinates the cylindrical coordinates can be found by
using the following conversions.

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Spherical Coordinates

The coordinates used in spherical coordinates are rho (  ) , theta ( ) , and phi ( ) .  is the
distance from the origin to the point.  is the angle between the positive x-axis and the line
denoted by r (which is also the same r as in polar/cylindrical coordinates).  is the angle
between the positive z-axis and the line connecting the origin and the point. Take note that 
cannot be negative. Thus,   0 . Figure 5 shows spherical coordinates of a point in three
dimensional space.

Figure 5

We should first derive some conversion formulas. Let’s first start with a point in spherical
coordinates and ask what the cylindrical coordinates of the point are. Using the triangle one can
make with the positive z-axis and the line from the origin through P, we have:


z

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 z   cos (i)

r   sin  (ii)

z2  r2   2 (iii)

r
tan  
z

x2  y2
tan  
z

z
cos 


Using the triangle that one can make with the positive x-axis and the line from the origin to the
projection of P on to the x-y plane, we have:

r
y


x

x  r cos (iv)

y  r sin  (v)

x2  y2  r 2 (vi)

y
tan  
x

Substituting eqn(ii) into eqn(iv) and (v) yields;

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 x  r cos =  sin  cos

and

y  r sin  =  sin  sin 

therefore,

x   sin  cos

y   sin  sin 

z   cos

Again substituting eqn (vi) i.e. x 2  y 2  r 2 into eqn (iii) yields;

z2  r2   2

x2  y2  z2   2

  x2  y2  z2

Finally, the following are the relations between Cartesian and spherical coordinates:

From spherical to Cartesian:

x   sin  cos

y   sin  sin 

z   cos

From Cartesian to spherical:

y x2  y2 z
  x 2  y 2  z 2 , tan   , tan   , cos 
x z 

z
cos 


z
cos 
x2  y2  z2