Diamond Isomorphism Theorem

2nd

ISOMOPHISM

THEOREM

Rufino Segura, Jr.

Mary Kirstin Magallanes

Jay Blancaflor

Ramir Gayatao

Glaiza Collado

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 Introduction

In the study of abstract algebra, isomorphism theorems play a

fundamental role in understanding the relationships between groups and
their subgroups. These theorems provide powerful tools to analyze and
simplify group structures by establishing equivalences between certain
types of quotient groups. Among these, the Second Isomorphism Theorem
is particularly useful for dealing with the intersection and product of
subgroups in a group.

The Second Isomorphism Theorem is an essential tool in group theory

because it provides a way to "collapse" part of a subgroup structure,
making it easier to study subgroups and their interrelations within the
larger group. It often arises in contexts where we are dealing with direct
products of groups, quotient groups, or in classifying subgroups.

For instance, this theorem is particularly helpful in scenarios where we

need to work with cosets or understand how a subgroup behaves within a
larger normal subgroup. Additionally, it serves as a foundation for other
concepts in abstract algebra, such as normal series and group extensions.

By understanding the Second Isomorphism Theorem, you can better grasp

the connections between subgroups and quotient groups, which are
foundational concepts that recur throughout group theory. This theorem,
along with the First and Third Isomorphism Theorems, forms a trio that
helps in simplifying complex group structures and studying homomorphic
images effectively.

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Lemma 1. Let G be a group, let H be a subgroup of G, and let N be a normal
subgroup of G. Then H ∩ N is a normal subgroup of H .

Proof:

The intersection H ∩ N is a subgroup of G . Since, it is clearly a

subset of H it must also be a subgroup of H . So, all that remains is to
show that it is a normal subgroup of H .

Let h ∈ H and k ∈ H ∩ N . We need to show that the conjugate

−1
h∗k∗h also belongs to H ∩ N . It certainly belongs to H , since H is
closed under the multiplication operation ¿ inherited from G , and it
must also belong to N since N is a normal subgroup of G and hence
closed under conjugation. Therefore, h∗k∗h−1 must also belong to
the intersection H ∩ N , and thus, is a normal subgroup of H .

Second Isomorphism Theorem

Let G be a group, let H be a (not necessarily normal) subgroup of G , and let N be a
normal subgroup of G . Then,

HN H
≅
N H ∩N

Proof:

Lemma 1 tells us that H ∩ N is a normal subgroup of H , so the

statement makes sense. We can use the First Isomorphism Theorem
to prove this result; the key is to construct the right surjective
H
homomorphism f : HN → . If we can find such a
H ∩N
homomorphism that happens to have ker (f )=N , then the Second
Isomorphism Theorem will follow immediately.

A typical element of HN is of the form h∗n where h ∈ H and

H
n ∈ N , while a typical element of the quotient is a coset
H∩N
k (H ∩ N ) for some k ∈ H .

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 H
With this in mind, we define a function f : HN → mapping
H ∩N
H
the element h∗n ∈ HN to the coset h( H ∩ N ) in .
H∩N

We have to show four things: that f is well-defined, that it’s surjective

onto H/(H∩N), that it’s a group homomorphism, and that its kernel
is the normal subgroup N.

Dealing with the first of these, let h1 , h2 ∈ H and n1 , n2 ∈ N

such that h1∗n1=h 2∗n2

in HN . Rearranging this, we get

−1 −1
h2 ∗ h1 ¿ n2 ∗ n1 .

−1
On the left-hand side, h2 ∗ h1 is clearly an element of H , while on
−1
the right-hand side, n2 ∗ n1 is clearly an element of N . Since they’re
equal, it must be the case that both belong to H and N . So both sides,
−1
and specifically h2 ∗ h1 , are in the intersection H ∩ N . Hence, since
−1
h2 ∗ h1 ∈ H ∩ N , the cosets h1 ( H ∩ N ) and h2 ( H ∩ N ) are equal,
and so f (h1∗n1)=h1 (H ∩ N )=h2 (H ∩ N )=f (h2∗n2). Thus f is
well-defined. To show that f is a group homomorphism, we need the
following observation: given any h ∈ H and n ∈ N there exists some
element k ∈ N such that h∗n=k∗h. This is because N , being a
normal subgroup, is closed under conjugation and so there is some
element k ∈ N such that h∗n∗h−1=k . Rearranging this, we get the
desired fact. Then, for any h1 , h2 ∈ H and n1 , n2 ∈ N we have

f ((h1∗n1 )∗(h2∗n2))=f (h1∗(n1∗h2 )∗n 2)

¿ f ( h1∗h 2∗n3∗n2 )
−1
st . n3=h2 ∗n1∗h2 ¿
¿(h1∗h 2)(H ∩ N )
¿ h1 (H ∩ N )· h2 (H ∩ N )
¿ f (h1∗n1)· f (h 2∗n2 )

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and hence f is a homomorphism.

To see that f is surjective, consider any h ∈ H and form the coset

h( H ∩ N ). We need to find some element h∗n of HN which maps to

this coset. Setting n=e ∈ N to get the product h∗e ∈ HN suffices
admirably, since f (h∗e)=h(H ∩ N ) as required.

Finally, we need to show that ker (f )=N . This kernel consists of all
elements h∗n ∈ HN such that f (h∗n)=H ∩ N . From this, we see
that the only elements h ∈ H for which h∗n → H ∩ N are those
satisfying h( H ∩ N )=H ∩ N , and there are exactly the elements of

H which also belong to N . So ker (f )=(H ∩ N )N . But this is exactly

the same as N , so ker (f )=N .

By the First Isomorphism Theorem, then, we have

HN HN H
= ≅ ℑ (f )=
N ker ( f ) H ∩N
as required.

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Example 1

Let G=S 4, H= A 4 and K={e , ( 1 2 ) ( 3 4 ) , ( 13 )( 2 4 ) , (1 4 ) ( 23 ) }

Then, H and K are both normal subgroups of G , and K is a normal

subgroup of H , so we can form the quotient groups

G/ H ≅ Z2 , G/ K ≅ S 3 , H /K ≅ Z 3

The quotient H / K is isomorphic to an index-2 (and hence normal)

subgroup of G/ K , so we can form the quotient group (G/ K )/(H /K )
, which happens to be isomorphic to Z 2 and therefore also to G/ H :

G/ H ≅(G/K )/(H / K)

Example 2

Let G=D 8, the dihedral group of order 8, representing the

symmetries of a square. This group has elements corresponding to
four rotations and four reflections. Let:

H= ⟨ r 2 ⟩={e ,r 2 }, the subgroup generated by a 180-degree rotation,

K= ⟨ s2 ⟩={e , s }, where s is a reflection along one axis.

Since, H is generated by a rotation and contain only powers of r 2 , it is

a normal subgroup of G . K is also normal in G because conjugating a
reflection in D 8 results in another reflection.

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Since, H has order 2 (half of the rotations), the quotient G/ H has
order 4 and is isomorphic to V 4 , the Klein four-group.

Since, both H and K are of order 2, H / K is isomorphic to Z 2.

According to the Second Isomorphism

Theorem

H ∙ K /K ≅ H /(H ∩ K )

Since, H ∩ K={e }, we have:

H ∙ K /K ≅ H /{e }≅ H

Hence, H ∙ K /K gives a subgroup of G/ K that is isomorphic to H ,

which is Z 2.

The quotient structure of G/ H , G/ K , and H / K highlights how D 8 ' s

subgroup interact through the second isomorphism theorem. This
provides insight into the relationships among rotation and reflection
symmetries within G=D 8.

Example 3

Let G=S 3, the symmetric group on three elements, which has

order 6.

Define the subgroups:

H= ⟨ (12) ⟩ ={e , ( 12 ) }, the subgroup generated by the transposition

(1 2), which has order 2.

N= ⟨ ( 1 2 3 ) ⟩ ={ e , (1 2 3 ) , ( 1 3 2 ) } ,the cyclic subgroup generated by the

3-cycle ( 1 23 ) , which has order 3.

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In S3 , any cyclic subgroup of order 3 is normal because it has index 2
in G. Therefore, N is a normal subgroup of G .

The elements of H are {e, (1 2)}.

The elements of N are { e , ( 12 3 ) , (1 3 2 ) } .

The product of HN consists of all possible products of elements from

H and N :
HN ={e , ( 12 ) , ( 1 23 ) , ( 1 32 ) , ( 1 2 )( 1 23 ) , ( 1 2 ) (1 3 2 ) }

Simplifying these, we get HN =G (since all elements of S3 are

covered)

HN |G| 6
Since HN =G , the quotient =G /N , which has order = =2.
N |N| 3
Therefore, G/ N ≅ Z 2

The intersection H ∩ N contains only the identity element e ,

H H
so = ≅ H , which is isomorphic to Z 2 also.
H ∩ N {e }

According to the second isomorphism theorem,

HN H
≅
N H ∩N

Therefore, G/ N ≅ H ≅ Z 2.

This example illustrated how the second isomorphism theorem

confirms that the quotient G/ N reflects the structure of H to

H ∩ N . In this case, both quotients are isomorphic to Z 2, giving

insight to decomposition of S3 based on its subgroups.

Example 4

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Let G=Z 12 , which has elements {0 ,1 , 2 ,… ,11} under addition
module 12. Define the subgroups:

H= ⟨ 4 ⟩ ={0 , 4 , 8 }, the subgroup generated by 4, which has order 3.

N= ⟨ 6 ⟩= {0 ,6 } , the subgroup generated by 6, which has order 2.

The product HN and determine its structure:

H={0 , 4 ,8 }
N={0 , 6 }

Thus,

HN = {0+ 0 , 4+ 0 ,8+ 0 , 0+6 , 4+ 6 , 8+6 }={0 , 4 , 8 ,6 ,10 , 2 }

Sorting these, we get HN = {0 , 4 , 8 ,6 ,10 , 2 } , which is a subgroup of

Z12 with order 6.

Since, HN has order 6 and N has order 2, the quotient HN / N has

|HN | 6
order = =3. Therefore, HN / N ≅ Z 3.
|N| 2

The intersection H ∩ N contains only the identity element 0, since

the only common element in H={0 , 4 ,8 } and N={0 , 6 } is 0. Thus,

H /( H ∩ N )=H /{0 }≅ H , which is isomorphic to Z3 .

According to the theorem, HN / N ≅ H /(H ∩ N ). Therefore,

HN / N ≅ H /{0 }≅ Z 3

This example demonstrated that the quotient HN / N reflects the

structure of H relative to H ∩ N . In this case, both HN / N and H are
isomorphic to Z3 , showing that the Second Isomorphism Theorem

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 can clarify the relationships among subgroups and quotient groups
in Z12 .

References

Jackson, N. (2017). A Course in Abstract Algebra.

https://dl.icdst.org/pdfs/files1/54f189606fea45076e942b7166fa9a
f1.pdf

Yadav, V. (n.d.). Mathematics. Scribd.

https://www.scribd.com/document/458614732/Mathematics

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