_Phonetics_ _Speech chain_

It is the science that studies the sound, the relationship

between spelling and sound, and how they are organized and
transmitted in a language.
In 1886, the International Phonetic Association (IPA) was
founded. This association devised a phonetic alphabet, or set
of symbols, that would serve to represent the sounds of any
language.

_Articulatory Phonetics_
It deals with how speech sounds are produced by the
movement of the articulators.
It focuses on describing the physical processes involved in
sound production, such as how the tongue raises or lowers, The speech chain is a complex series of events which take
how the lips shape, and how air is expelled from the lungs to place at different levels and stages between the speaker’s
create different sounds. brain and the listener’s brain.

_Auditory Phonetics_
1° Speaker has a message to transmit to a listener
It is concerned with how speech sounds are perceived by the (Psychological level, in his brain), he arranges his thoughts
ear and processed by the brain. into linguistic form (Linguistic stage). The message is
It examines how listeners hear and interpret sounds, including encoded.
the recognition of different phonemes and the ability to
distinguish between similar sounds. 2° The motor nerves that link the speaker’s brain with his
speech mechanism active the corresponding muscles
_Phonology_ (Physiological level, Articulatory stage).
It is concerned with how we interpret and systematise sounds.
It deals with the system and pattern of the sounds, studying the 3° The movement of the articulators produces disturbances in
vowels, consonants and Suprasegmental features, such as the air pressure called sound waves which are physical
stress, intonation, syllables, etc. manifestations (Acoustic stage).

Suprasegmental phonology study the significant sound 4° These travel towards the listener’s ear. (Physiological
contrasts that extend over several segments (phonemes), such level) The sound waves active the listener’s ear-drum, and his
as stress or intonation. sensory nerves carry the message, in the form or nerves
impulses, to the brain (Hearing process).
For example, stress is important: when the word “import” is
pronounced with the first syllable sounding stronger than the
5° (Linguistic stage, Psychological activity) Finally, the
second, English speaker hear it as a noun, whereas when the
hearer’s brain decodes the message in order to understand it.
second syllable is stronger the word is heard as a verb.
Intonation is also important: if the word “right” is said with the
pitch of the voice rising, it is likely to be heard as a question or The production of sounds starts in the brain, where a
as an invitation to a speaker to continue, while falling pitch is message is created. This message is translated into signals
more likely to be heard as a confirmation or agreement. that activate the speech muscles generating sound waves
using the air of the lungs, the vocal cords and the
These examples show sound contrast that extend over several articulators.
segment (phonemes) and such contrasts are called
Suprasegmental. The elements that are involved in the speech mechanism
are the entire speech apparatus and the air-stream.
 _Organs of speech / Speech Apparatus_ The tension and length of the vocal cords allow us to alter the Lips
pitch and volume of our voice. When the vocal cords are tense They constitute the very mobile outer edges of the mouth,
It is made up of a series of organs and cavities that form a
and thin, they produce higher-pitched sounds; when they are and can adopt different shapes, be pressed together,
passage from the lungs to the lips and nostrils.
relaxed and thicker, the sounds produced are lower in pitch. brought into contact with the teeth or rounded to produce the
When we inhale, the air enters through the nose and/or
lip-shape for vowels.
mouth, then passes through the pharynx, the larynx and the
trachea, into the lungs. As we exhale, the air is set in motion Teeth (upper and lower)
by the lungs, and passes through the larynx, the cavities or They are at the front of the mouth, immediately behind the lips,
resonators (pharynx, nasal cavity, oral cavity), and then these are also to the sides and back almost to the soft palate.
through the articulators (palate, tongue, teeth, lips) The upper teeth are used in speech to interfere with or stop
the air-flow with the help of the tongue or the lower lip.
Alveolar ridge
It is the prominence just behind the upper teeth, and its
surface is rough and covered with little ridges.
- Cavities or resonators: Hard palate
These are the spaces within the vocal tract where sound It is the bony immovable part that lies over the centre of the
resonates. They play a crucial role in shaping the quality and mouth. It has a smooth curved surface
characteristics of speech sounds and are parts of the vocal
Soft palate / velum
tract that amplify and modify the sound produced by the
The moveable part at the back. allows air to pass through the
vocal cords.
nose and through the mouth. Is one of the articulators that can
Pharynx be touched by the tongue.
The part of the throat located behind the nasal cavity and above When the velum is raised and pressed against the back wall
the larynx. A tube which begins just above the larynx. of the pharynx, it closes the entrance to the nasal cavity, and
- Lungs Nasal cavity the air escapes through the mouth.
They are made to expand to take in air (inhalation), and The space inside the nose, involved in the production of nasal When it is lowered it does not completely close the passage
contract to let it out (exhalation). They are situated within the sounds. into the oral cavity.
rib cage. Below the lungs, and separating them from the Oral cavity
Uvula
stomach, is a flat muscle called the diaphragm. The mouth, which includes the area between the lips and the
It is the tip of the velum.
The movement and expansion or contraction of the lungs must throat.
Tongue
be carried out by the muscles that join them to the rib cage
It is principally made of muscle. It can interfere with the airt-
and/or by lowering the diaphragm. - Articulators:
stream with the palate causing friction. Can be moved into
The function of the lungs is that of a motor or activator that These are all situated in or surrounding the oral cavity.
Articulators are called active when they are capable of many different places and different shapes
sets the passage of air into the movements of inhalation
It is divided into: the tip, the extreme end; the blade, lying
and exhalation. movement, passive when they are incapable of movement.
under the alveolar ridge; and the back, lying under the velum;
and root.
- Larynx
Situated at the top of the trachea and below the pharynx.
It contains the first valve that can interfere with the passage of
the air-stream - the vocal folds.
These are two bands of muscle lying across the centre of the
larynx. At the front they are fixed side by side to the inside of
the thyroid cartilage; at the back they are attached to the two
arytenoid cartilages, which thanks to muscular action can bring
the vocal folds close together or draw them apart, and make
them either tense or lax.

- Vocal folds
The primary function of the vocal folds is to vibrate as air
from the lungs passes through them, generating sound.
 _Vowels_ Short vowels are not held for an extended period; _Diphthongs_
In their production the air-stream comes through the mouth (or these are: Sounds which consist of a glide from one vowel to another.
mouth and nose), centrally over the tongue, and meets a /ɪ/, this vowel is close front; The first part is much longer and stronger than the second part.
stricture of open approximation. They are made mainly by /e/, it is a front half open vowel; They can be classified in:
raising a certain part of the tongue to different levels, by /æ/, this vowel is front and open-mid; Centring diphthongs; Fronting diphthongs; Closing diphthongs.
modifying the shape of the lips and by raising and lowering the /ʌ/, this is a central open-mid vowel;
velum. /ɒ/, it is not quite fully back and between open-mid an open;
/ʊ/, it is near to open and near to central;
Another variable of vowel quality is lip-position, there are and /ə/, called schwa and it is central mid.
three possibilities:
rounded, where the corners of the lips are brought towards
each other and the lip pushed forwards; Long vowels are held longer; their symbols consist of one
spread, with the corners of the lips moved away from each vowel symbol plus a length mark made of two dots “:”.
other; Thus we have /i:/ it is front close;
and neutral, where the lips are not noticeably rounded or /ɜ:/ it is central mid;
spread. /ɑ:/ it is back almost open,
/ɔ:/ it is back between half-close and mid;
/ʊ:/ it is back and close. Centring diphthongs
Classification labels correspond to tongue positions, and they glide towards the /ə/ (schwa) vowel, and are three:
may be placed on two axes: /ɪə/, the starting point is a little closer than /ɪ/;
- a horizontal one indicating part of the tongue which is raised _Cardinal vowels_ /eə/, begins with a vowel sound that is more open than /e/;
(front, central and back) /ʊə/, this has a starting point similar to /ʊ/.
They are part of a set of idealized speech sounds used as a
- a vertical one indicating height to which the tongue is raised reference points to classify the vowel sounds.
(close, half-close, mid, half-open, and open). These are eight, and the vowel sounds of any language can be
identified by comparing them with this Fronting diphthongs
end with a glide towards the /ɪ/, and these are:
Cardinal vowels 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are pronounced with spread /eɪ/ the starting point is the same as /e/;
or open lips, and the last three with lip rounding. /aɪ/, begins with an open vowel which is between front and
back, it is quite similar to /a/;
/ʊɪ/, the first part is slightly more open than /ɔ:/.

Closing diphthongs
glide towards /ʊ/, these are:
/əʊ/ the beginning is the same as for the “schwa” vowel, there
is quite noticeable lip-rounding;
/aʊ/ begins with a vowel similar to /aɪ/, the tongue often does
not reach the /ʊ/ position, and there is only slight lip-rounding.

_Triphthongs_
They consist of a glide from one vowel to another and then to
a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption
The tripthongs can be looked on as being composed of the five
fronting and closing diphthongs described with /ə/ added on the
end.
/eɪə/ .
/aɪə/ /əʊə/
/ʊɪə/ /aʊə/
 _Consonants_ Manner of articulation The comparative and superlative suffixes “-er” and “-est” are
treated as a single-morpheme words for the purposes of this
Consonant sounds are made with a constriction on the vocal - Plosive /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/ rule.
tract. To describe a consonant, we have to consider three A complete closure is made in the vocal tract, and the soft
elements: voicing (if they are voiced or voiceless); place of palate is also raised. Air pressure increases behind the closure, - Fricatives /f/ /v/, /θ/ /ð/, /s/ /z/, /ʃ/ /ʒ/
articulation (where it is produced); and manner of and is then released “explosively” When two vocal organs come close enough together for the
articulation (how the sound is produced). They are produced in four phases: movement of air between them to be heard
Voiceless and voiced Closing phase: The articulators move to form a closure that
Sounds produced with vocal fold vibration are called voiced stops the airflow to escape from the vocal tract. The fricatives /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, can be found in initial,
sounds, while these produced without producing vibration of Compression phase: The air behind the closure is medial and final positions. In the case of /ʒ/, however, the
the vocal folds are called voiceless sounds, produced with compressed. distribution is much more limited. Only medially is it found at all
only breath. Release phase: The closure is released, allowing the air to commonly.
escape and create a burst of sound. Phonetically, /h/ is a voiceless palatal fricative. Also, this
Fortis and lenis Post- Release phase: This phase includes any additional fricative is glottal, meaning that the narrowing that produces the
Fortis means strong, these are voiceless and use more sound, like aspiration. friction noise is between the vocal folds. Moreover, this
pulmonic air. consonant always has the quality of the vowel it precedes. So,
Lenis means weak, these are voiced and use less pulmonic air. Initial position (preceding vowels): The closing phase for /p/ phonetically, /h/ is a voiceless vowel with the quality of the
/t/ /k/ and /b/ /d/ /g/ takes place silently. During the compression voiced vowel that follows it.
Place of articulation
phase here is no voicing in /p/ /t/ /k/; in /b/ /d/ /g/ there is Phonologically, h is a consonant which is usually found before
- Bilabial /p/ /b/, /m/ normally very little voicing. The release of /p/ /t/ /k/ is followed vowels. When h occurs between voiced sounds it is
Articulated by the lower lip against the upper lip by audible plosion. There is then, in the post-release phase, a pronounced with a voicing called breathy voice, which is a
period during which air escapes through the vocal folds, weak, slightly fricative sound. it can be dropped, especially in
- Labio-dental /f/ /v/
making a sound like /h/. This is called aspiration. Then the unstressed or casual speech. For example, in words like “her”
Articulated by the lower lip against the upper teeth
vocal folds come together and voicing begins. The release of and “have,” the /h/ can be left out.
- Dental /θ/ /ð /b/ /d/ /g/ is followed by weak plosion, and this happens at
Articulated by the tongue tip against the upper teeth - Affricates /tʃ/ /dʒ/
about the same time as the beginning of voicing.
- Alveolar /t/ /d/, /n/, /s/ /z/, /l/, /r/ A complete closure is made somewhere in the mouth, and the
In initial position /b/ /d/ /g/ cannot be preceded by any
soft palate is raised. Air pressure increases behind the closure,
Articulated by the tongue tip or blade against the alveolar ridge consonant, but /p/ /t/ /k/ may be preceded by /s/. And when it
happens it is unaspirated. and is then released more slowly than in plosives
- Post-alveolar /ʃ/ /ʒ/, /tʃ/ /dʒ/
Articulated by the blade (or tip) of the tongue against the Medial position: The pronunciation of /p/ /t/ /k/ and /b/ /d/ /g/ - Laterals /l/
alveolar ridge. in medial position depends on whether the syllables preceding A partial closure is made by the blade of the tongue against the
and following the plosive are stressed. alveolar ridge. Air is able to flow around the sides of the tongue
- Palatal /j/ Final position: Final /b/ /d/ /g/ normally have little voicing; if
Articulated by raising the front of the tongue towards the hard there is voicing, it is as the beginning of the compression - Approximants /r/ /j/ /w/
palate phase; /p/ /t/ /k/ are always voiceless. Vocal organs come near to each other, but no so close as to
- Velar /k/ /g/, /ŋ/, /w/ cause audible friction.
- Nasals /m/ /n/ /ŋ/
Articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft palate
A closure is made by the lips, or by the tongue against the
- Glottal /h/ When /p/, /t/, /k/ are followed by one of /l/, /r/, /j/, /w/, these
palate, the soft palate is lowered, and air escapes through the
The gap between the vocal cords is used to make audible voiced continuant consonants lose their voicing and become
nose.
friction fricative. So words like “play” /pleɪ/, “tray” /treɪ/, “quick” /kwɪk/,
In initial position we find /m/, /n/ occurring freely.
“cue” /kjuː/, contain devoiced and fricatives /l/, /r/, /j/, /w/.
Medially, /ŋ/ occurs quite frequently. When we find the letters
“nk” in the middle of a word in its orthographic form, a /k/ will
always be pronounced; however, some words with
orthographic “ng” in the middle will have a pronunciation
containing /ŋg/ and others can occur without a following /g/ if it
occurs at the end of a morpheme (a grammatical piece of a
word); if it occurs in the middle of a morpheme it has a following
/g/. So, all the words ending orthographically with “ng” always
end with /ŋ/, for example “long” is /loŋ/.
 Plosives Fricatives Affricates
A complete closure is made in the vocal tract, and the soft When two vocal organs come close enough together for the A complete closure is made somewhere in the mouth, and the
palate is also raised. Air pressure increases behind the closure, movement of air between them to be heard soft palate is raised. Air pressure increases behind the closure,
and is then released “explosively” and is then released more slowly than in plosives
/f/ Labio-dental – Voiceless
Phases: – Produced by touching the bottom lip to the upper teeth /tʃ/ Post-alveolar – Voiceless
1.Closing: The articulators move to form a closure that stops – Articulated by the blade (or tip) of the tongue against the
the airflow to escape from the vocal tract.
/v/ Labio-dental – Voiced alveolar ridge
2.Compression: The air behind the closure is compressed. – Produced by touching the bottom lip to the upper teeth
3. Release: The closure is released, allowing the air to escape /dʒ/ Post-alveolar – Voiced
and create a burst of sound. /θ/ Dental – Voiceless – Articulated by the blade (or tip) of the tongue against the
4.Post-release: This phase includes any additional sound, like – Produced by putting the tip of the tongue between the teeth alveolar ridge
aspiration.
/ð/ Dental – Voiced
Laterals
/p/ Bilabial – Voiceless – Produced by putting the tip of the tongue between the teeth
A partial closure is made by the blade of the tongue against the
– Produced by bringing both lips together alveolar ridge. Air is able to flow around the sides of the tongue
/s/ Alveolar – Voiceless
/b/ Bilabial – Voiced – produced by the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge /l/ Alveolar – Voiced
– Produced by bringing both lips together – the tongue tip is raised while the rest of the tongue remains
/z/ Alveolar – Voiced down so air can escape over the sides of the tongue
/t/ Alveolar – Voiceless – produced by the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge
– produced by the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge
/ʃ/ Post-alveolar – Voiceless Approximants
/d/ Alveolar – Voiced – Articulated by the blade (or tip) of the tongue against the Vocal organs come near to each other, but no so close as to
– produced by the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge alveolar ridge cause audible friction.

/k/ Velar – Voiceless /ʒ/ Post-alveolar – Voiced /r/ Alveolar – Voiced

– Produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft – Articulated by the blade (or tip) of the tongue against the – air escapes through the central part of the mouth; either the
palate or velum alveolar ridge tip of the tongue is curled back behind the alveolar ridge or
the top of the tongue is behind the alveolar ridge
/g/ Velar – Voiced /h/ Glottal – Voiceless
– Produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft – Produced by restricting the airflow through the open glottis /j/ Palatal – Voiced
palate or velum or by stopping the air completely at the glottis – Produced by raising the front part of the tongue to the hard
– The gap between the vocal cords is used to make audible palate
Nasals friction
/w/ Velar – Voiced
A closure is made by the lips, or by the tongue against the
– Produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft
palate, the soft palate is lowered, and air escapes through the
palate or velum
nose.

/m/ Bilabial – Voiced

– Produced by bringing both lips together

/n/ Alveolar – Voiced

– produced by the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge

/ŋ/ Velar – Voiced

– Produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft
palate or velum
 _Respiration_ _Phoneme_ _Inflections_
The lungs are like sponges that can fill with air, and they are According to Peter Roach, a phoneme is the smallest unit of Inflections are endings that change the form of a word for a
contained within the rib cage. sound in a language that can distinguish one word from grammatical category without changing its grammatical class.
If the rib cage is lifted upwards and outwards there is more another. Phonemes are abstract representations of sounds
space in the chest for the lungs and they expand, with the result and are perceived as distinct by speakers of a language The regular comparative inflection <-er> is pronounced /-ə/,
that they take in more air. If we allow the rib cage to return to or /-ər/ in rhotic accents.
its rest position quite slowly, some of the air is expelled and can _Phonetic transcription_
be used for producing speech sounds. phonetic transcription, where every speech sound must be The regular superlative inflection <-est> is pronounced with
identified as one of the phonemes and written with the either /-əst/ or /-ist/.
_Obstructions / Strictures_ appropriate symbol.
To make speech sounds we must obstruct the airflow in some
way, we do it by making one or more obstructions or There are two different kinds of transcription exercise: The regular past tense or past participle inflection <-ed> is
strictures in the vocal tract. One place where we can make a In one, transcription from dictation: the student must listen pronounced in three different ways:
stricture is in the larynx, by bringing the vocal folds close to to a person, or a recording, and write down what they hear.
In other transcription from a written text: the student is given 1. If the stem ends in the consonants /t, d/, the inflection is
each other.
pronounced ‘in full’, either as /-əd/ or /-id/
a passage written in orthography and must use phonemic
_Voicing / Phonation_ symbols to represent how she or he thinks it would be
If the vocal folds vibrate we will hear the sounds that we call pronounced by a speaker of a particular accent. 2. If the stem ends in a vowel or a voiced consonant (other than
voicing or phonation. There are many different sort of /d/), the inflection is pronounced in a reduced form /-d /
voicing that we can produce by making changes in the vocal In phonetic transcription, different levels of detail are used:
folds. Narrow phonetic transcription: It shows detailed information 3. If the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than /t/), the
- Variations in intensity: We produce voicing with high about how sounds are made, capturing differences reduced form is changed to /-t/
intensity for shouting, and with low intensity for speaking
quietly. Broad phonetic transcription: It adds a bit more detail than a The regular present tense third person inflection <-es> also
- Variations in frequency: If the vocal folds vibrate rapidly, basic phonemic transcription, focusing on general sound has three possible pronunciations. The regular plural
the voicing is at high frequency; if there are fewer vibrations differences. inflection and the genitive possessive inflection of nouns
per second, the frequency is lower. Allophonic transcription: It is one which is basically follow exactly the same pattern.
- Variations in quality: We can produce different-sounding phonemic, but includes extra information about different
voice qualities, such as those we might call harsh, breathy, variations (allophones) of sounds. 1. If the stem ends in /s, z, ʃ, ʒ tʃ, dʒ/ (the so-called sibilant
murmured or creaky. consonants) the inflection is pronounced ‘in full’, either as /-əz/
or /-iz/

2. If the stem ends in a vowel/voiced consonant (other than the

sibilants), the inflection is pronounced in a reduced form /-z/

3. If the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than the

sibilants), the reduced form is changed to /-s/
Gemination _Allophones _
It is an articulation of a consonant for a longer period of time Clear lateral
An allophone is a variation of the sound that can realize a Clear /l/ occurs when the lateral approximant /l/ is before a
than that of a single consonant. It is found across words and phoneme
across morphemes when the last consonant in a given word vowel, the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the
and the first consonant in the following word are the Aspiration: /p, t, k/ when they occur at the beginning of a word hard palate. e.g.: lion [lʌɪən]
same fricative, nasal, or plosive. or a stressed syllable. E.g. [tʰɒp] (top)
For instance: Velarization
 g: egg girl [ˈɛɡ.ɡɝl] However, if they are preceded by /s/ at the beginning of a word, The dark /l/ which occurs before consonants, for instance the
 m: prime minister [ˌpɹaɪmˈmɪnɪstə(ɹ)] they are unaspirated. e.g. [stɒp] (stop) word “eel” /i:ɫ/ or “little” [lɪtɫ]
 sh: fish shop [ˈfɪʃ.ʃɒp] Lateral release
 t: cat tail [ˈkæt̚ˌteɪl] Non-audible release: If the plosive occurs in the final position, A lateral release is when a plosive consonant is released into
 th: both thighs [ˈboʊθ'θaɪz] the plosion following the release of all of them is weak and often a lateral consonant.
 v: live voter [ˈlaɪv.voʊtə(ɹ)] not audible, e.g: [bɪg̚] (big) For example, in the word "spotless", [ˈspɒtˡlɨs]
 z: pays zero [ˈpeɪzˈziˌɹoʊ] Dentalization
Devoicing
Refers to the shortening of a voiced sound because of the Dentalization occurs when an alveolar consonant sound /t, d,
Assimilation influence of a voiceless sound. It affects all voiced consonants n, s, z, l/ at the end of one word is pronounced with dental
It is a sound change in which some phonemes (typically preceded, followed or surrounded by a silence or a pause. articulation if the following word begins with the dental fricatives
consonants or vowels) change to become more similar to other /θ, ð/.
nearby sounds. - Nasals: /m/ /n/ /ŋ/ preceded by s. Only alveolar sounds are dentalized when they appear before
a dental fricative.
e.g. snail [sn̥eɪəl]
- Word-final /n/ regularly adjusts itself to the anticipated point e.g.
of articulation of the consonant at the beginning of the next Plosives: /t/ eighth [eɪt̪ ʰθ] /d/ width [wɪd̪θ]
- Plosives: The voiced plosives /b, d, g/ lose their voicing when
word, when it is followed by words beginning with bilabial /p, b, Nasals: /n/ tenth [tʰɛn̪θ]
followed immediately by a voiceless consonant and before
m/, the /n/ adjusts itself to /m/ in anticipation. An identical case Fricatives: /s/ /z/
silence (word-final position).
of assimilation occurs in the prefixes un- and in-. Approximants: /l/ health [hɛl̪ θ]
e.g. bat [ʙ̥æt]
- The /d/ becomes bilabial /b/ before bilabial /p, b, m/, and Glottal reinforcement / Glottalisation
becomes velar /g/ before velar /k, g/. - Fricatives: The voiced fricatives /v/, /ð/, /ʒ/ and /z/ are also The possibility for plosives to be produced with a completely
similarly devoiced in word-final position. closed glottis. Occurs immediately before [p, t, k] and for [tʃ]
- Post-alveolar assimilation of /d/ before /j/ accounts for the e.g. the boys [ðə bɔɪz̥] when is at the end of a stressed syllable.
e.g.
/dʒ/.
- Affricates: The voiced post-alveolar affricate /ʤ/ is also de- nature [neɪʔtʃə] (before the voiceless affricate)
voiced in word-final position actor [æʔktə] (before a voiceless plosive)
- Assimilation of final /t/, producing /p/ and /k/ before bilabial /b,
d, m/ and velar /k, g/. e.g. age [eɪdʒ] Linking /r/
It is an extra sound that we use between two words when
- Final /s/ and /z/ assimilate to post-alveolar /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ in the - Approximants: we are connecting these two words together
face of postalveolar /ʃ, tʃ, dʒ / and palatal /j/ when /l, r, j, w/ follow an aspirated plosive /p, t, k/. We use a linking R sound when the first word ends with one
e.g. quick [kw̥ɪk] cue [kj ̥uː] of these simple vowel sounds: /ɑ:/, /ɔ:/, /ɜ:/, /ə/, or with any of
_Homorganic_ these diphthongs (double sounds): /eə/, /ɪə/ and /ʊə/, and
Homorganic means two or more speech sounds that are made /r/ is also devoiced when it occurs after the voiceless the second word begins with a vowel sound.
with the same place of articulation. consonants /p, t, k, f, θ, ʃ/. e.g. answer it /ˈɑːnsə r ɪt/
e.g. tray [tr̥eɪ]
_Minimal pairs_
Minimal Pairs means two words that differ by only a single The lateral /l/ is devoiced when it immediately follows either the
sound voiceless bilabial plosive /p/ or the voiceless velar plosive /k/,
at the beginning of a stressed syllable.
e.g. play [pʰl̥ eɪ]
 _Syllabic consonant_
Syllabication Syllabic /n/ can be composed of a plosive or fricative consonant
A consonant can constitute the centre (or peak) of a syllable plus “an” in medial and final position in words. For example,
instead of a vowel. the syllabic consonant follows immediately “threaten” /θretn/. It is most common after alveolar plosives
on a consonant made at the same point of articulation and fricatives.
(homorganic articulation) In the case of /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/ followed by /n/ the plosive is nasally
released by lowering the soft palate, so that in the word “eaten”
The consonant /d/ can be followed by either the consonants /n/ /iːtn/, for example, the tongue does not move but the soft palate
and /l/ without a vowel intervening is lowered at the end of /t/ so that compressed air escapes
Syllabic /n/ and /l/ typically occur in unstressed syllables through the nose.
immediately following the alveolar consonants, /t, s, z/ as well We do not usually find syllabic /n/ after /l/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/, so that for
as /d/. example “pigeon” must be pronounced /pɪʤɪn/.
Syllabic /n/ after non-alveolar consonants is not so widespread.
In words where the syllable following a velar consonant is spelt
A syllabic consonant forms a syllable on its own and replaces “an” or “on” it is rarely heard, for example “toboggan”
a vowel. This can be either /l/, /r/ or a nasal consonant, and we /təˈbɒgən/ or “wagon” /wæɡən/.
count these as weak syllables. After bilabial consonants, in words like “happen” we can
consider it equally acceptable to pronounce them with syllabic
Syllabic /l/ occurs after another consonant, and the way it is /n/. In a similar way, after velar consonants in words like
produced depends on the nature of that consonant. If the “thicken”, “waken”, syllabic /n/ is possible but /ən/ is also
preceding consonant is alveolar, as in “bottle” /bɒtl/, “muddle” acceptable.
/mʌdl/, “tunnel” /tʌnl/, the sides of the tongue, which is raised After /f/, /v/, syllabic /n/ is more common than /ən/. For
for the preceding consonant, are lowered to allow air to escape instance, “seven”, “heaven”, “often” are more usually /sevn̩/,
over them (this is called lateral release). /hevn̩/, /ɒfn̩/ than /sevən/, / hevən/, /ɔːfən/.
The most obvious case is where we have a word ending with
one or more consonant letters followed by “le” or “les”, The consonants /m/ and /ŋ/ can both occur as syllabic.
examples are: “cattle” /kætl/, “wrestle” /resl/ (with alveolar We find them sometimes in words like uppermost /Λpməust/.
consonant preceding); “couple” /kʌpl/, “trouble” /trʌbl/ (with
non-alveolar consonant preceding). Such words usually lose
Syllabic /r/ is found in weak syllables such as the second
their final letter “e” when a suffix beginning with a vowel is
syllable of “preference” /prefrəns/.
attached, but the /l/ usually remains syllabic, for example
In most cases where it occurs there are acceptable alternative
“bottling” /bɒtlɪŋ/. We also find syllabic /l/ in words spelt, at the
pronunciations without the syllabic consonant.
end, with one or more consonant letters followed by “al” or “el”,
for example: “panel” /pænl/, “petal” /petl/.
 _Syllable_ - In final consonant clusters: maximum phonological structure
Phonetically (in relation to the way we produce them and the If there is no final consonant there is a zero coda. It sets the vowel in the centre of the syllable, the onset being
way they sound), syllables are usually described as a centre built by pre-initial, initial and post initial phonemes, and the
with little to no obstruction to the airflow, and which sounds - two-consonant final cluster: coda built by a pre-final, final, and up to three post-finals.
comparatively loud. The first type is a final consonant preceded by a pre-final
consonant and the other a final consonant followed by a post- Modern phonology made a rather more refined analysis of the
There are many cases of syllables: final consonant. syllable, in which the vowel and the coda are known as the
- A minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation (e,g, the The pre-final consonants form a small set: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /l/ /s/. rhyme, which is divided in the peak (normally being the vowel),
words “are” /ɑː/, “or” /ɔː/, “err” /ɜː/). These are preceded and We can see these in “bump” /bʌmp/, “bent” /bent/, “bank” and the coda (which is optional since the rhyme may have no
followed by silence. /bæŋk/, “belt” /belt/, “ask” /ɑːsk/. coda). It may have an onset too, but this is not obligatory
The post-final consonants also form a small set: /s/, /z/, /t/,
- Some syllables have an onset, instead of silence, they have /d/, /θ/, example words are “bets” /bets/, “beds” /bedz/, maximal onset principle
one or more consonants preceding the centre of the syllable “backed” /bækt/, “bagged” /bægd/, “eighth” /eɪtθ/. It states that where two syllables are to be divided, any
(e.g. “bar” /bɑː/, “key” /kiː/, “more” /mɔː/). consonants between them should be attached to the right-hand
- final three-consonant cluster: syllable, not the left. For example, if the word ‘better’ has to be
- Other syllables may have a coda, meaning e vowels followed the first type is pre-final plus final plus post-final, for example divided into syllables, according to the maximal onsets
by one or more consonants “helped” /helpt/, “banks” /bæŋks/, “bonds” /bɒndz/, “twelfth” principle [t] must be put on the right-hand syllable, giving
(e.g. “am” /æm/, “ought” /ɔːt/, “case” /keɪs/). /twelfθ/; [be.tə].
the second type is final plus post final 1 plus post-final 2. Post- But that may be incorrect since the first syllable is analysed as
Also, some syllables have both onset and coda (e.g. “ran” final 2 is again one of /s/, /z/, /t/, /d/, /θ/, for example “fifths” [be], and isolated syllables ending with one of the vowels are
/ræn/, “sat” /sæt/, “fill” /fil/). /fɪfθs/, “next” /nekst/, “lapsed” /læpst/. not possible so this division is incorrect, so the maximal onsets
principle says that in this case, the consonant must be
Most four-consonant clusters can be analysed as consisting assigned to the left side, resulting in [bet.ə] as a more
Consonant cluster: two or more consonants are together.
of a final consonant preceded by a pre-final and followed by satisfactory division.
post-final 2 and post-final 2. For example, “twelfths” /twelfθs/
If the first syllable of the word begins with a vowel, this initial and “prompts” /prɒmpts/. Another solution may be that when one consonant stands
syllable has a zero onset, as for example, ‘exit’ [ˈeksɪt].
between vowels and it is difficult to assign the consonant to one
- Initial two-consonant clusters:
syllable of the other, it could be said that said consonant
One sort is composed of /s/ followed by one of a small set of
belongs to both syllables, or that the consonant in this situation
consonants, for example “sting” /stiŋ/, “sway” /sweɪ/, “smoke”
is ambisyllabic.
/sməʊk/.
The /s/ in these clusters is called the pre-initial consonant and
the other consonant the initial consonant.

The other sort begins with one of a set of about fifteen

consonants, followed by one of the set /l/, /r/, /j/, /w/, as in, for
example “play” /pleɪ/, “try” /traɪ/, “quick” /kwɪk/, “few” /fjuː/.
We call the first consonant of these cluster the initial consonant
and the second the post-initial. There are some restrictions on
which consonants can occur together.

- Initial three-consonant clusters, examples of them are:

“split” /splɪt/, “stream” /striːm/, “square” /skweə/.
The /s/ is the pre-initial consonant, the /p/, /t/, /k/ that follow
/s/ are the initial consonant and the /l/, /r/, /w/ are post initial.
The number of possible initial three-consonant clusters is quite
small.
 _Strong and weak forms_ Determiners Titles
Certain words have at a strong form with a strong vowel (for - Definite article = The Most tittles are stressed
emphasis or contrast), and a weak form with a weak vowel. Strong: /ðiː/ Weak: /ðə/ - Mr
- Indefinite article = a / an Strong: /ˈmɪstə/ /ˈmɪstər/ + vowel
As a general rule, lexical (or ‘content’) words like nouns, verbs, Strong: /ˈeɪ, ˈæn/ Weak: /ə, ən/ - Mrs
adjectives and adverbs are made prominent because of their - Some Strong: /ˈmɪsɪz/ / ˈmɪsɪʒ/ + J
importance in a message, whereas grammatical (or ‘structure’) Strong: /sʌm/ Weak: /s(ə)m/ - Miss
words like conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns, determiners - Any Strong: /ˈmɪs/ /ˈmɪʃ/ + J
and auxiliary and modal verbs are usually pronounced without Strong: /ˈenɪ/ Weak: /enɪ/ - Ms
any prominence. - Many Strong: /ˈməz/ /ˈməʒ/ + J
Strong: /ˈmenɪ/ Weak: /menɪ/ - Master
Strong: /ˈmɑːstə/ / ˈmɑːstər/ + vowel
Prepositions
Demonstrative adjectives - Baroness
Strong forms are used for emphasis or contrast and when they Strong: /ˈbærənəʃ
occur at the ends of clauses. - This
Strong: /ðɪs/ - President
- That Strong: /ˈprezɪdnt/
- To (it also changes to its weak form before a vowel)
Strong: /ðæt/ (determiner) Weak: /ðət/ (conjunction) - Queen
Strong: /tu:/ Weak: /tə/
- These Strong: /ˈkwiːn/
- On
Strong: /ðiːz/ - Prince
Weak: /ɒm/
- Those Strong: /ˈprɪns/
- From
Strong: /frɒm/ Weak: /frəm/ Strong: /ðəʊz/
But some other monosyllabic titles are often unstressed
- With
Possessive adjectives - St
Strong: // Weak: /wið/
- My Strong: /sənt/
- At
Weak: /məɪ/ - Sir
Strong: /æt/ Weak: /ət/
- Your Strong: /sə/ /sər/
- In
Weak: /in/ Weak: /jɔː/
- For (A linking /r/ is added before a following vowel) - His
Strong:/fɔ:/ Weak: /fə/ Weak: /hɪz/
- Off (adverbial particle) - Her
Weak: /ɒf/ Weak: /hɜː/
- Of - Its
Strong: /ɒv/ Weak: /əv/ Weak: /ɪts/
- Our
Weak: /aʊə/
Conjunctions
- Their
- And
Weak: /ðeə/
Strong: /ænd/ Weak: /ən/
- But
It is stressed when a genuine choice or alternative is being
offered. A linking /r/ is added before a following vowel
Strong: /bʌt/ Weak: /b(ə)t/
- Or
Strong: /ɔː(r)/ Weak: /ə/
- As
Strong: /æz/ Weak: /əz/
- Because
Strong: /bɪˈkɒz/ Weak: /bɪkəz/
Subject Pronouns Auxiliary verbs Just
-I - Be Strong: / ˈdʒʌst ˈdʒʌs/
/aɪ/ Strong: /ˈbiː/ Weak: /bɪ/
- You - Am Not
/juː/ Strong: /ˈæm/ Weak: /əm/ Strong: / ˈnɒt/
- He - Are
Strong: /hiː/ Weak: /hɪ/ Strong: /ˈɑː ˈɑːr/ Weak: /ə ər/ So
- She - Is Strong: / ˈsəʊ ˈsə/
Strong: /ʃiː/ Weak: /ʃi/ Strong: /ˈɪz/
- It - Was There
/ɪt/ Strong: /ˈwɒz/ Weak: / wə wər/ Strong: / ˈðeə/
- We - Were
Strong: /wiː/ Weak: /wɪ/ Strong: /ˈwɜː/ Weak: /hɪ/
- They - Been
/ðeɪ/ Strong: /ˈbiːn/ Weak: /bɪn/
Object Pronouns
- Me - Have
Strong: /miː/ Weak: /mi/ Strong: /ˈhæv/ Weak: /əv/
- Him - Has
/hɪm/ Strong: /ˈhæz/ Weak: /həz/
- Her - Had
/hɜː/ Strong: /ˈhæd/ Weak: /həd/
- Us
Strong: /ʌs/ Weak: /əs/ - Do
- Them Strong: /ˈduː/ Weak: /dʊ də/
Strong: /ðem/ Weak: /ðəm/ - Does
Relative Pronouns Strong: / ˈdʌz/ Weak: /dəz/
- Who
Weak: /huː/ Modal verbs
- Can
Possessive Pronouns Strong: /kæn/ Weak: /kən/
- Whom - Could
/huːm/ Strong: /kʊd/ Weak: /kəd/
- Whose - May
/huːz/ Strong: /meɪ/
- Yours - Might
/jɔːz/ Strong: /maɪt/
- Mine - Shall
/maɪn/ Strong: /ʃæl/ Weak: /ʃəd/
- His - Should
/hɪz/ Strong: /ʃʊd/ Weak: /ʃəd/
- Hers - Will
/hɜːz/ Strong: /wɪl/ Weak: /wəl/
- Ours - Would
/aʊəz/ Strong: /wʊd/ Weak: /wəd/
- Theirs - Must
/ðeəz/ Strong: /mʌst/ Weak: /məst/
- Ought
- One Strong: /ɔːt/
/wʌn, wɒn/
 _Strong and weak syllables_ _Stress_ ‘_Complex words and stress_
Weak syllables tend to be shorter, of lower intensity (loudness). The production of stress is generally believed to depend on the Polysyllabic words are words that have more than one
Strong syllables are stressed and weak syllables are speaker using more muscular energy. Then when we produce syllable, for example, “tennis”, “island”, “wisdom”.
unstressed. stressed syllables, the muscles that we use to exhale air from
the lungs are often more active, producing higher subglottal While, compound words are made of two (or occasionally
Moreover, any strong syllable will have as its peak one of the pressure. more) independent English words (e.g. “ice cream”, “armchair”,
vowel phonemes, but not /ə/, /i/, /u/. If the vowel is one of /ɪ/, All stressed syllables have prominence. Stressed syllables “teatime”).
/e/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ɒ/, /ʊ/, then the strong syllable will always have a
are more prominent than unstressed syllables, as they are: Compound words are sometimes written as one word (e.g.
coda as well. louder; “sunflower”); sometimes with the words separated by a hyphen
Weak syllables, on the other hand, can only have one of a very they have a pitch that is noticeably different from that of the (e.g. “open-minded”, “cost-effective”); and sometimes with the
small number of possible peaks. At the end of a word, we may others; two words separated by a space (e.g. “desk lamp”, “battery
have a weak syllable ending with a vowel (with no coda): they can also contain a vowel that is different in quality from charger”).
the vowel /ə/ (schwa), for example “better” /betə/; neighbouring vowels;
a close front unrounded vowel /i:/, /ɪ/, for instance “happy” and they can have a longer length than the other syllables. When a compound combines two nouns normally it has the
/hæpɪ/;
To decide on stress placement, there are some rules: stress on the first element (e.g. “typewriter”, “teacup”, “sunrise”)
or a close back rounded vowel /u:/, /ʊ/, for example “thank you”
1. Whether the word is morphologically simple, or whether it is
/θæŋk jʊ/. However, when it has an adjectival first element and the –ed
complex as a result of containing one or more affixes or by
We also find weak syllables in word-final position with a coda if being a compound word. For simple words, they will always morpheme at the end it is usually stressed on the second
the vowel is schwa, for example “open” /əʊpən/, “sharpen” element, for example “bad-tempered”, “half-timbered”, “heavy-
have primary stress when pronounced in isolation.
/ʃɑːpən/. The most frequent vowel in weak syllables is /ə/
2. The grammatical category of the word. handed”.
(schwa). 3. The number of syllables the word has.
4. The phonological structure of those syllables. There are two Compounds in which the first element is a number in some form
basic categories: strong and weak, and only strong syllables also tend to have final stress. For instance, “three-wheeler”,
can be stressed, although some of them can be unstressed but “second-class”.
they are not so common.
Compounds functioning as adverbs are usually final-stressed,
In the case of simple two-syllable words, either the first or the for example, “headfirst”, “North-East”.
second syllable will be stressed.
There is a general tendency or verbs to be stressed nearer the Finally, compounds which function as verbs and have and
end of a word and for nouns to be stressed nearer the adverbial first element take final stress, for instance,
beginning. “downgrade”, “back-pedal”, “ill-treat”.

In verbs, if the final syllable is weak, then the first syllable is

stressed, for example “enter” /ˈentə/, “open” /ˈəʊpən/. A final
syllable is also unstressed if it contains /əu/ (e.g. “follow”
/ˈfɒləʊ/, “borrow” /ˈbɒrəʊ/).
If the final syllable is strong, then that syllable is stressed even
if the first syllable is also strong, for example, “apply” /əˈplaɪ/,
“maintain” /meɪnˈteɪn/.

Two-syllable simple adjectives are stressed according to the

same rule, giving “lovely” /ˈlʌvlɪ/, “divine” /dɪˈvaɪn/, “correct”
/kəˈrekt/.

Nouns require a different rule: stress will fall on the first syllable
unless the first syllable is weak and the second syllable is
strong. Thus: “money” /ˈmʌnɪ/, “product” /ˈprɒdʌkt/, “balloon”
/bəˈluːn/, “design” /dɪˈzaɪn/.