UNIT IV OPTICAL, PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE SENSORS

PHOTO CONDUCTIVE CELL

The working of one of the most common photo detectors is based upon the change in
conductivity of a semi-conducting material with change in radiation intensity. The change in
conductivity appears as change in resistance and therefor-e these devices are photo resistive
cells. Thus from the point of view of transduction the resistance changes with light intensity.

The principle of a photoconductive devices can be explained as under

In a semi-conductor an energy gap exists between conduction electrons and valence

electrons, In a semi-conductor photoconductive transducer, a photon is absorbed and thereby
excites an electron from valence band to conduction band. As electrons are excited from
valence band to conduction band, the resistance decreases, making the resistance an inverse
function of radiation intensity.

The maximum wavelength is given by :

hc
0 
eE10

Note that any radiation with wavelength greater than that given by above equation cannot
produce any change in the resistance of the semi-conductor.

PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS

The most two commonly used photoconductive semi-conductor materials are cadmium
sulphide (CdS) with -a band gap of 2.42 eV and cadmium selenide (CdSe) with a.1 74 eV
,band gap. On account of these. large energy band gaps, both the materials have-a very high
resistivity at ambient temperature. This gives a very large resistance for practical purposes:
A special kind of construction has to be used Which minimum resistance while providing
maximum surface.

1
The special type of construction is shown in above fig (a) . This construction gives minimum
length and maximum area.. By using a thin narrow strip and by winding this arrangement
back and forth, we get a maximum surface area. The photoconductive material is deposited
on a ceramic substrate. The electrodes are of tin or indium . The basic circuit for the
photoconductive cell is figure (b)

When the cell is kept in darkness its resistance is called dark resistance.The dark resistance
may be as high as 10 X 1012 Ω. If the cell is illuminated its resistance decreases, The
resistance depends on the physical character of the photoconductive layer as well as on the
dimensions of the cell and its geometric configuration. The current depends upon the d.c.
voltage applied. The current is of the order of mA. . The spectral response characteristics of
two commercial cells are shown in Fig. 19'2

The spectral response characteristics of two commercial cells are shown in above Figure.
There is almost no response to radiation of a wavelength shorter than 300 nm. Cadmium
sulphide cells havea peak response in the green part of the spectrum at 510 nm and can be
used in the near infra -red region up to about 750 nm. The maximum response of cadmium
sulphoselenide is in the yellow orange at 615 nm. This can be used in the infra-red region up
to about 1000 nm. The photoconductor device described above is also called a bulk photo
conductor.

PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

This is an important class of photodetectors. They generate a voltage which is proportional to

EM. radiation intensity. They are called photovoltaic cells because of their voltage generating
characteristics. They infact convert the EM energy into .electrical energy.They are passive

2
transducers, i e. they do not need an external source to power them. A photovoltaic cell is
shown in Figure.

The cell is a giant diode. constructing a pn junction between appropriately doped

semiconductors. Photons striking the cell pass through the thin p-doped upper layer and are
absorbed by electrons in the lower n layer causing formation of conduction electrons and
holes. The depletion zone potential of the pn junction then separates these conduction holes
and electrons causing a difference of potential to develop across the junction.

The open circuit voltage is given by Eo=Eo loge I Volt

where Eo=calibration voltage; V, and I =intensity ; W/m2

All photovolatic cells have low but finite Internal resistance. When connected in a circuit
having some load resistance, the cell voltage is reduced some what from the value given by
above Eqn. The below Figure shows the current versus luminous flux characteristics of a
typical photovoltaic cell.

3
These characteristics show that the current is a function of the cell incident luminous flux and
hence microammeter shown in above Figure may be directly calibrated to read luminous flux
or luminous intensity or illuminance.

The photovoltaic cells can operate satisfactorily. in the temperature range of -100 to 125o·C.
The temperature changes have little effect on short-circuit current but affect the open circuit
voltage considerably, These changes may be of the order of a few mV/C in output voltage.

PHOTO RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER

A photoresistor (also known as a light-dependent resistor, LDR, or photo-conductive cell) is a

passive component that decreases in resistance as a result of increasing luminosity (light) on
its sensitive surface, in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity.

A photoresistor can be used in light-sensitive detector circuits and light-activated and dark-
activated switching circuits acting as a semiconductor resistance. In the dark, a photoresistor
can have a resistance as high as several megaohms (MΩ), while in the light, it can have a
resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a
certain frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough
energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners)
conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a
photoresistor can substantially differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique
photoresistors may react substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength bands.

4
You can see in the above figure, the changes in resistance are taken along the 'Y' axis and the
illumination of the light falls upon the LDR is taken along the 'X' axis. The above graphical
structure also shows how the resistance of LDR changes with the changing of illumination of
the light that falls upon the LDR.

Advantages of LDR

1. LDRs are very low-cost devices.

2. LDRs are very small in size.
3. LDR is a very simple device.
4. The connection of LDR is also very simple.

Disadvantage of LDR

1. LDR is not so much a sensitive device.

2. LDR gives inaccurate results if the working temperature changes.

The important applications of LDR are,

1. LDRs are used in Light Sensors 2. LDR is also used in some cameras to detect the
presence of light.3. LDRs are used in Ligh Intensity measurement meters.
4. In the manufacturing industry, LDR is used as a sensor for the counting of the packets
moving on a conveyor belt.5. LDRs are also used in Light Activated Control Circuits.
6. LDRs are used in Street Lights which are automatically turn ON in the night time.
7. LDRs are used in Burglar Alarm Circuits.
8. LDRs are used in Photosensitive Relays
9. LDR can be used in simple Fire alarm circuits.
10. The Light Dependent Resistors are used in modern televisions, and computer screens for
automatic brightness and contrast control.

FIBER OPTIC SENSORS

Fibre Optic Sensor

• Sensing different types of variables such as temperature, liquid flow , magnetic field ,
acoustic parameters and so on.
• Energy source – optical radiation , Medium as well as sensor – fibre
• Two groups of fibre:
• (1) Active : the fibre is exposed to the energy source that affects the measurand and a
consequent change in the optical propagation in the fibre is detected and related to the
measurand.
• (2) Passive: light transmitted through a fibre, called input fibre is first modulated by a
conventional optical sensor and this intensity-modulated light is propagated through a
second fibre called the output fibre and then detected and corrected with the
measurand.
• Applications:
• Temperature measurement
• Liquid level detector using optical fibre
• Fluid flow sensing using fibre optics
• Microbend force sensor using optical fibre

5
 • Features of fibre optic sensors
• Highly reliable and secure due to immunity of the sensed signal to electromagnetic
interference.
• Safe in explosive and nuclear environments, free from risk of fire and sparks.
• Most suitable for remote sensing and telemetry
• Corrosion resistant
• Small size and weight.
• High accuracy and sensitivity
• Robust construction
Temperature measurement using optical sensors

Phase difference method

When the light signal transmits in a single mode fiber, the light energy cannot be entirely
concentrated in the fiber core.

A small amount of energy will be spread through the cladding of the fiber. That is to say, if
two fibers are close enough to each other, the transmitting light in an optical fiber can enter
into another optical fiber.

Therefore, the reallocation technique of optical signal can be achieved in multiple fibers,
which is how fiber optic splitter comes into being.

6
The fiber optic mirror reflects incoming light directly back, with very low optical loss. It can
be used to change the transmission direction of the optical signal, without incurring high
optical loss

Technique avoiding beam splitter and mirror

Temperature sensor fibre black body cavity

Temperature sensing using backscatter in optical fibre

Liquid level sensing

7
(a) Level below sensor

Level covering sensor

Fluid flow sensing using fiber optics

PIEZO –ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS:

• A piezo-electric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain

surfaces of a crystal if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by the application of
a mechanical force. This potential is produced by the displacement of charges.
• The effect is reversible, ie., conversely, if a varying potential is applied to the proper
axis of the crystal, it will change the dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming it.
This effect is known as piezo-electric effect.

8
• Elements exhibiting piezo-electric qualities are sometimes called as electro-resistive
elements.
• Discovered by Pierre Curie in 1880 in quartz crystal

• The polarity of the charge depends on the direction of the applies forces.

• Where, d – charge sensitivity of the crystals

F – applied force in Newton

The force changes the thickness of the crystals. Where A – area of crystals in meter square
t – the thickness of crystals in meter, E – Young‟s modulus N/m2
where ω – width of crystals in meter , l – the length of crystals in meter
On substituting the value of force in the equation of charge, we get

9
 The output voltage is obtained because of the electrode charges,

The g is the voltage sensitivity of the crystals, where E0 – electric field strength, V/m
The voltage sensitivity of the crystals is expressed by the ratio of the electric field intensity and pressure.
When the mechanical deformation occurs in the crystals, it generates charges. And this charge develops
the voltages across the electrodes.
The Piezoelectric crystal is direction sensitive. The polarity of the voltage depends on the direction of the
force which is either tensile or compressive. The magnitude and the polarity of the charges depend on the
magnitude and the direction of the applied force.

Modes of Operation of Piezo-Electric Crystal

Each of the above mode can be converted into electrical signal by using piezoelectric transducer. By
cementing two crystals together so that their electrical axes are perpendicular, “Benders” or “Twisters” can be
produced. This means that a bending motion applied to a bender produces an output voltage. Similarly, a
twisting motion applied to a twister produces a voltage output. Benders and twisters are shown below.

10
Properties of Piezo Electric-Crystal

• The piezoelectric material has high stability.

• It is available in various shapes and sizes.
• The piezoelectric material has output insensitive to temperature and humidity.
Uses of the Piezoelectric transducers

• The piezoelectric material has high stability and hence it is used for stabilizing the
electronic oscillator.
• The ultrasonic generators use the piezoelectric material. This generator is used in
SONAR for underwater detection and in industrials apparatus for cleaning.
• It is used in microphones and speakers for converting the electric signal into sound.
• The piezoelectric material is used in electric lighter.
The transducer has low output, and hence external circuit is associated with it.

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

THERMISTOR / NTC

 Thermistor is a solid-state temperature sensing device that acts like an electrical resistor but is
temperature sensitive
 Thermistors can be used to produce an analogue output voltage with variations in ambient
temperature and can be referred to as a transducer. This is because it creates a change in its
electrical properties due to a physical change in heat
 A thermistor is basically a two-terminal solid state thermally sensitive transducer made from
sensitive semiconductor-based metal oxides with metallised or sintered connecting leads onto a
ceramic disc or bead
 This allows it to change its resistive value in proportion to small changes in temperature
 In other words, as its temperature changes, so too does its resistance and as such its name,
“Thermistor” is a combination of the words THERM-ally sensitive res-ISTOR
 While the change in resistance due to heat is generally undesirable in standard resistors, this
effect can be put to good use in many temperature detection circuits

11
 Thus, being non-linear variable-resistance devices, thermistors are commonly used as
temperature sensors having many applications to measure the temperature of both liquids and
ambient air

Principle:

“When the temperature of the material changes, its resistance changes and it can be measured
easily and calibrated against the input quantity”

 A thermistor does not actually “read” anything, instead the resistance of a thermistor changes
with temperature
 Thus it allows thermistor to detect even small changes in temperature which cannot be
observed using RTD or thermocouple
 How much the resistance changes depend on the type of material used in the thermistor
 Resistance of thermistor range from 0.5𝜴 to 0.75M𝜴
 There are two types of thermistors: Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) and Positive
Temperature Coefficient (PTC)
 When the temperature increases, resistance decreases. Conversely, when temperature
decreases, resistance increases
 Although PTC types are available, most thermistors have NTC
 Unlike other sensors, thermistors are nonlinear i.e., the points on a graph representing the
relationship between resistance and temperature will not form a straight line
 The location of the line and how much it changes is determined by the construction of the
thermistor

Construction:

 Beads is Small in size and the Diameter is within this range 0.015mm to 1.25mm
 Probes are the Beads sealed in tips of solid glass rod and possess 2.5mm diameter and a length
of 6mm to 50mm
 Disc is obtained by Pressing material under high pressure 2.5 to 25mm
 Thermistors are available in different shapes like rod, disc, bead
 They can be encapsulated in epoxy resin, glass, baked-on phenolic, or painted

12
 The commonly used thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of the metallic oxides like
semiconducting materials such as oxides of manganese, nickel, iron, uranium and cobalt

Specifications:

 Thermistors are inexpensive, rugged, reliable and responds quickly

 Because of these qualities thermistors are used to measure simple temperature measurements,
but not for high temperatures
 Thermistor is easy to use, cheap, durable
 Thermistors are mostly used in digital thermometers and home appliances such as refrigerator,
oven (application that requires heating or cooling protection circuits for safe operation)
 Stability, sensitivity and time constant are the final properties of thermistor that create these
thermistors sturdy, portable, cost-efficient, sensitive and best to measure single-point
temperature

Characteristics:

Math expression for relation between R of thermistor and absolute temperature of thermistor

[ ( )]

RT1 is the resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperatureT1

RT2 is the resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T2

is the constant depending on the material of thermistor

This shows that it has high negative temperature coefficient of resistance

Comparison of temperature characteristics of platinum and

13
For a limited range of temperature, the resistance of thermistor varies as [ ]

Thermistor exhibit a negative resistance temperature coefficient 0.05°C

Typical Characteristics:

There are three electrical characteristics that are taken into account for all the applications in which
NTC thermistors are used

1. Resistance-Temperature Characteristics

NTC thermistor exhibits the negative temperature characteristics when the resistance increases with
the slight decrease in temperature

2. Current-Time Characteristics

The rate change of current is low due to the high resistance of the thermistor. Finally, as the device
approaches an equilibrium condition, the rate of the current change will decrease as it reaches the
final value of time

3. Voltage-Current Characteristic

Once a self-heated thermistor reaches to an equilibrium condition, the rate of heat loss from the
device is equal to the power supplied

In the below figure, we can observe these two parameters relationship wherein, we can observe a
decrease in voltage at 0.01 MA current and again the voltage increases at a peak current of 1.0 MA,
and then decrease at the current value of 100 MA

14
volt drop increases with increase in current until it reaches peak beyond which volt drop decrease as
current increases

Time delay to reach maximum current as a function of the applied voltage

Advantages:

 When the resistors are connected in the electrical circuit, heat is dissipated in the circuit due to
flow of current. This heat tends to increase the temperature of the resistor due to which their
resistance changes. For the thermistor the definite value of the resistance is reached at the given
ambient conditions due to which the effect of this heat is reduced.
 In certain cases, even the ambient conditions keep on changing, this is compensated by the
negative temperature characteristics of the thermistor. This is quite convenient against the
materials that have positive resistance characteristics for the temperature.
 The thermistors are used not only for the measurement of temperature, but also for the
measurement of pressure, liquid level, power etc.
 They are also used as the controls, overload protectors, giving warnings
 The size of the thermistors is very small and they are very low in cost. However, since their size is
small they have to be operated at lower current levels.
Disadvantages:

 Resistance versus temperature characteristics is highly nonlinear

 Not suitable over wide temperature range

RESISTANCE THERMOMETER / PTC / RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR / RTD

Principle:

An RTD (resistance temperature detector) is a temperature sensor that works on following

principle “The resistance thermometer uses change in electrical resistance of conductor to
determine the temperature” i.e., The resistance of the conductor changes when there is a change in
temperature. The variation of R with respect to T is expressed as

( )

Where RO is the resistance at temperature T = 0

, are the constants

15
Requirements of conductor material to be used:

 Different materials used in the construction of RTDs offer a different relationship between
resistance and temperature
 Material used should have high value of resistivity
 The system error is minimized when the nominal value of RTD is large. This implies that a metal
with high value of resistivity should be used. If resistivity is lower, more materials is required
 Temperature sensitive materials used in the construction of RTDs include platinum, nickel and
copper
 Platinum is the widely used as it can withstand high temperature while maintaining excellent
stability. It shows limited susceptibility to contamination
 Gold and silver possess low resistivity
 Tungsten has high resistivity. It is reserved for high temperature applications as it is brittle and
difficult to work
 Copper has low resistivity, low linearity and low cost. Upper limit is 120°C
 Nickel wires are used over a limited temperature range. They are nonlinear and tend to drift with
time
 Common value of resistance for a platinum is 100𝜴 at 0°C with a temperature coefficient of
0.00385/°C .More chemically pure platinum wire has a resistance temperature coefficient of
0.00392/°C

Construction:

 Resistance elements are generally long spring like wires enclosed in a meta Sheath
 The resistance element is surrounded by porcelain insulator which prevents short circuit
between wire and metal sheath

16
 Two leads are attached to each side of platinum wire
 When this instrument is placed in a liquid or a gas medium whose temperature is to be
measured the sheath quickly reaches temperature of the medium
 This changes in temperature causes the platinum wire inside the sheath to heat or cool resulting
in a proportional change in the wire resistance
 This change in resistance can be directly calibrated to indicate temperature

Linear Approximation:

The equation of straight line is ( )

where Ɵ1< Ɵo< Ɵ2

RƟ is the approximate resistance at Ɵ°C

RƟo is the approximate resistance at Ɵo°C

Ɵ=Ɵ-ƟO

Where Ɵ is the change in temperature

is the resistance temperature coefficient at temperature Ɵo°C

Quadratic approximation:

This is the most accurate representation and is written as ( )

Where 1 is the linear fractional change in resistance

2 is the quadratic fractional change in resistance

RTD Wiring Diagram:

In an RTD sensor the element is just part of a circuit that is made up of at least two and up to four
lead wires, with any number of connectors and accessories

The circuit configuration can be dependent on a number of factors including Current wiring
configuration e.g. 2 wire, 3 wire, 4 wire configurations

17
2-wire RTDs are the least accurate of the three circuit types as there is no way of calculating or
eliminating the lead wire resistance between the detector and the reading

This creates uncertainty in the reading, so these sensors are often only used with short lead wires
where accuracy is not of great importance

2-wire Pt1000s can be used to reduce sensitivity and uncertainty but still don’t provide a true
accurate reading

2-wire RTD’s are mostly used with short lead wires or where close accuracy is not required

3-wire RTDs are the most commonly used RTD sensors

Assuming all three lead wires are the same the third lead wire calculates the average lead wire
resistance throughout the circuit and removes it from the sensor measurement

This makes 3-wire RTDs more accurate than their 2-wire counterparts but less accurate than 4-wire
configurations, however in circuits with long lead wires where there are long distances between the
detector and the reading, significant savings can be made by using a 3-wire construction

4-wire RTDs are used in applications where close accuracy is paramount

In a 4-wire RTD the actual resistance in each of the lead wires can be measured and eliminated
leaving the exact resistance of the detector

The 4-wire circuit works by using the first two lead wires to power the circuit whilst the 3rd and 4th
wires read the resistance in each lead wire compensating for any differences in lead wire resistance

18
Advantage:

1. Measurement is accurate
2. Easy instalment
3. Easily replaceable
4. Measurement of differential temperature is possible
5. Small in size
Disadvantage:

1. Costly
2. There is a possibility of self-heating

THERMOCOUPLE

Imparting heat to the junction of two dissimilar metals causes a small continuous
electromotive force (EMF) to be generated. One of the simplest of all temperature sensors,
the thermocouple (TC) depends upon the principle known as the Seebeck Effect. The word is
a combination of thermo for the heat requirement and couple denoting two junctions.

A TC is an assembly of two wires of unlike metals joined at one end, designated as the hot
end. At the other end, referred to as the cold junction, the open circuit voltage or Seebeck
voltage is measured. This voltage (EMF) depends on the temperature difference between the
hot and the cold junctions and on the Seebeck coefficients of the two metal wires.

THEORY OF OPERATION

An ordinary TC consists of two different kinds of wires, each of which must be made
of a homogeneous metal or alloy. The wires are fastened together at one end to form a
measuring junction, normally referred to as the hot junction, since a majority of the
measurements are made above ambient temperatures. The free ends of the two wires are
connected to the measuring instrument to form a closed path in which current can flow. After
the TC wires connect to the measuring instrument, the junction inside is designated as
reference junction, or the cold junction

The EMF developed at wire junctions is a manifestation of the Peltier Effect and
occurs at every junction of dissimilar metals within the measuring system. This effect
involves the liberation or absorption of heat at the junction when a current flows across it.

19
The resultant heating or cooling depends upon the direction of current flow. Applications of
this principle are becoming increasingly useful in electric heating and refrigeration

A second EMF develops along the temperature gradient of a single homogeneous

wire. This is the Thomson Effect. It is most important that each section of wire in a given
circuit be homogeneous. This is because if there is no change in the composition or physical
properties along its length, the circuit EMF depends only upon the metals employed and the
temperature of their junction. Therefore, the circuits EMFs are independent of both length
and diameter of wires. Another reason for requiring homogeneous wire is that thermal EMFs
within a single strand passing from a warmer to a cooler area, or vice versa, will cancel each
other.

Further, if both junctions of a homogeneous metal are held at the same temperature,
the metal does not contribute to the net EMF of a circuit

It follows, then, that by holding temperatures constant at all junctions except one
within a given circuit, we can measure temperature as a function of the hot junction
temperature with respect to the cold junction temperature

TCs drift, because of the junction of the two dissimilar metals that degrade. If used at
low temperatures, this may only be a few degrees per year and can be calibrated out of the
system. At higher temperatures, they degrade more quickly. Further, drift can also be caused
by long extension wires; these wires are often of lesser quality than the TC wires and can
contribute twice the error if subjected to harsh environmental conditions. Before the use of
transmitters, some plants have replaced their extension wires on a regular basis to minimize
this effect.

Interpreting the Generated Voltage

The TC reads the difference between the temperatures of its measuring and reference
junctions. (Actually, it is a general limitation of human beings that we cannot measure
anything in the absolute; all we can do is to compare a known quantity against an unknown.)
If we know what the reference temperature is, we can identify the unknown process
temperature by measuring the voltage generated by the TC:

Unknown temperature = (voltage/Seebeck coefficient) + reference temperature

The process temperatures can be obtained from the voltage read by either going to a
graph for more accuracy; by going to TC tables that list the voltages corresponding to each
temperature with each TC type (such tables are provided at the end of this section).

Unfortunately, the voltage-to-temperature relationship is not a straight-line function,

and the Seebeck coefficient is not a constant. For some TCs over certain temperature ranges,
such as type K over the range 0 to 1000°C (32 to 1832°F), the Seebeck coefficient is
relatively constant. (40 µV/°C), but in general it changes with temperature. This in the past
has resulted in unique scales for each type of TC or in the need to use tables and curves to
convert millivolts into temperature.

20
THE LAW OF INTERMEDIATE TEMPERATURES

There are some applications where a bare TC with an exposed junction may be used either by
itself or inserted into a protective well. For most process applications, the TC is manufactured
with a protective outer sheath that uses an insulating material to electrically separate the TC
from the sheath and provide mechanical and environmental protection. In some cases the TC
junction is placed in direct contact with the tip of the sheath to increase speed of response

These sensors demand the use of an electrically isolated measurement circuit. Even insulated
TCs will eventually suffer from a breakdown of the insulation, and the TC tip will contact the
sheath and associated well. It is virtually assured that a ground loop will be present that will
cause measurement errors. These errors are usually insidious in that they usually vary over
time and may go unnoticed. Recommended practice is to always use an instrument with full
isolation to eliminate this concern.

Measuring Junction Designs

A TC is only as accurate as the wire from which it is made. Therefore, it is common

practice for best accuracy to make all TCs from the same coil of wire. This assumes
uniformity of the wire. Most manufacturers offer either standard or special calibrations,
which imply more care in selection of wire, handling, and manufacturing. The careful
selection of materials, proper construction, installation, and handling alone will not maintain
highest accuracy; an adequate checking program is also necessary. In order to protect the TC
wire, a thermal insulation and a sheath for mechanical protection usually cover it. The
purpose of this design is to expose only the measuring junction of the TC to the temperature
of the process. This can be achieved in three different ways. The exposed thermocouple
junction gives the best speed of response; the time constant can be less than a 1 s with small
(down to 0.01 mm diameter) TCs.

Their main limitation is that the process materials must not be corrosive to the TC
wires.

In the ungrounded junction design, the TC wire is physically insulated from the sheath
by insulation material (usually magnesium oxide powder). These designs can be used in

21
corrosive processes, but their speed of response is slow. The grounded junction design is also
protected from the corrosive process, but its thermal time constant is shorter (by a few
seconds, depending on mass).

Extension Wires

The thermocouple extension wire is usually insulated with Teflon, polyvinyl chloride,
nylon, rubber, asbestos, or fiber- glass. For higher temperatures refrasil or nextel are
recommended. Teflon is used when the TC extension wire must be submerged under water or
if resistance to solvent, corrosion, flame, or humidity is critical. Individually insulated duplex
wires are usually provided with a protective outer jacket, which can be wrapped, extruded, or
stranded. The extension wire to be used for types, E, J, K, and T TCs are designated as EX,
JX, KX, and TX extension wires and should extend all the way to the cold junction of the
loop.

With connections correctly made, copper extension wire can be used over long
distances. However, it is recommended that iron-constantan and copper-constantan always be
used with lead wire of the same material. To guard against mis- takes in connection, industry
practice is to color-code the wires, with the negative lead always red. Smaller gauge wire
provides faster response, but heavier gauge wires last longer and resist contamination or
deterioration at high temperatures

Cold Junction Compensation

When a readout device is employed, it converts the EMF produced by the temperature
difference between the hot and cold junctions to record or otherwise display the temperature
of the hot junction. To prevent errors due to secondary EMFs produced by variations of
temperature at the cold junction and within the readout device, these EMFs must be
compensated for. One method is to hold the cold junction at a constant temperature, which
can be done in laboratories with an ice bath. An oven can also be used, although keeping an
oven temperature constant presents another set of problems. Neither an ice bath nor an oven
reference is practical in an industrial environment. In the temperature transmitters used in the
process industry, the ice bath reference must be replaced by a variable ambient reference
junction. Change is to insert a short copper wire between both voltmeter terminals and the TC
leads and to place these new junctions on an isothermal block. This change eliminates the
junctions J and J. Copper is joined to copper at these points. By placing the new J and J
junctions on an isothermal block, their effects cancel out as they are in opposition to each
other and are at the same temperature. The second change was to place the reference junction
not in an ice bath but on the isothermal block. From the law of intermediate metals we know
that when junctions in series are at the same temperature, their number makes no difference.
Therefore, J in can be replaced by J REF 4

Calibration of Thermocouples

A thermocouple is calibrated by comparing its response with a standard thermometer

at the same temperature. The standard thermometer may be another thermocouple, a platinum

22
resistance thermometer, or a liquid in-glass thermometer. Several suitable calibration
methods have been developed. An optical pyrometer is used to calibrate thermocouples at
temperature above 800℃. In this case, the thermocouple is first place in a solid block in a
furnace. As the furnace heats to different temperature, the response of the thermocouple is
compared to the optical pyrometer reading when it views the block.

TEMPERATURE IC SENSOR

LM35 is a temperature sensor that outputs an analog signal which is proportional to the
instantaneous temperature. The output voltage can easily be interpreted to obtain a
temperature reading in Celsius. The advantage of lm35 over thermistor is it does not require
any external calibration. Semiconductor-based temperature sensors (also called IC sensors)
have a dual integrated circuit (IC) that contains two similar diodes. The diodes and
temperature-sensitive voltage measure temperature. These sensors provide a reasonably linear
output; however, they are less accurate between 1 and 5 °C

The LM35 is easy to use; just connect the left pin to power (4V to 30V) and the right pin to
ground (assuming the flat side of the sensor is facing you). Then the middle pin will have an
analog voltage that is directly proportional (linear) to the temperature in °C.. The basic
principle of working the temperature sensors is the voltage across the diode terminals. If the
voltage increases, the temperature also rises, followed by a voltage drop between the
transistor terminals of the base and emitter in a diode.

FLOW MEASUREMENT

Hot Wire Anemometer

Definition: The Hot Wire Anemometer is a device used for measuring the velocity and
direction of the fluid. This can be done by measuring the heat loss of the wire which is placed
in the fluid stream. The wire is heated by electrical current.

23
 The hot wire when placed in the stream of the fluid, in that case, the heat is transferred from
wire to fluid, and hence the temperature of wire reduces. The resistance of wire measures the
flow rate of the fluid.

The hot wire anemometer is used as a research tool in fluid mechanics. It works on the
principle of transfer of heat from high temperature to low temperature.

Construction of Hot Wire Anemometer

The hot wire anemometer consists two main parts.

1. Conducting wire
2. Wheat stone bridge.

The conducting wire is housed inside the ceramic body. The wires are taking out from the
ceramic body and connecting to the Wheatstone bridge. The wheat stone bridge measures the
variation of resistance.

Constant Current Method

In the constant current method, the anemometer is placed in the stream of the fluid whose
flow rate needs to be measured. The current of constant magnitude is passed through the
wire. The Wheatstone bridge is also kept on the constant voltage.

When the wire is kept in the stream of liquid, in that case, the heat is transferred from the
wire to the fluid. The heat is directly proportional to the resistance of the wire. If heat
reduces, that means the resistance of wire also reduces. The Wheatstone bridge measures the
variation in resistance which is equal to the flow rate of the liquid

24
Constant Temperature Method
In this arrangement, the wire is heated by the electric current. The hot wire when placed in
the fluid stream, the heat transfer from wire to the fluid. Thus, the temperature of the wire
changes which also changes their resistance. It works on the principle that the temperature of
the wire remains constant. The total current requires to bring the wire in the initial condition
is equal to the flow rate of the gas.

Measurement of the rate of a fluid using a Hot Wire Instrument

In hot wire anemometer, the heat transferred electrically to the wire which is placed in the
fluid stream. The Wheatstone bridge is used for measuring the temperature of wire regarding
their resistance. The temperature of the wire remains constant for measuring the heating
current. Thus, the bridge remains balanced.

The standard resistor is connected in series with the heating wire. The current across the wire
is determined by knowing the voltage drop across the resistor. And the value of voltage drop
is determined by the potentiometer.

The equation determines the heat loss from the heated wire

Where, v – velocity of heat flow,

ρ – the density of fluid,

The a and b are the constants. Their value depends on the dimension and the physical
properties of the fluid and wire.

Suppose I, is the current of the wire and the R is their resistance. In equilibrium condition,

25
Heat generated = Heat Lost

The resistance and temperature of the instrument are kept constant for measuring the rate of
the fluid by measuring the current I.

ULTRASONIC FLOW MEASUREMT

ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS

Ultrasound is acoustic (sound) energy in the form of waves having a frequency above the
human hearing range

Ultrasonic flow meters use sound waves to determine the velocity of a fluid flowing in a pipe

It do not obstruct flow so they can be applied to sanitary, corrosive and abrasive liquids and
in following industries oil and gas, water and wastewater, power, chemical, food and
beverage, pharmaceutical, metals and mining, and pulp and paper

Ultrasonic flow meters use clamp-on transducers that can be mounted external to the pipe and
do not have any wetted parts

• Temporary flow measurements can be made using portable ultrasonic flowmeters with
clamp-on transducers

• Clamp-on transducers are especially useful when piping cannot be disturbed, such as in
power and nuclear industry applications

• Clamp-on transducers can be used to measure flow without regard to materials of

construction, corrosion, and abrasion issues

Principle

“The velocity of sound in a fluid in motion is the resultant of the velocity of sound in the
fluid at rest plus or minus the velocity of the fluid itself”

There are two types of Ultrasonic Flow Meters available

1. Transit time flow meters

26
2. Doppler Flow meter

Both are designed to clamp onto the outside of the pipe without breaking the line or
interrupting the flow This also eliminates pressure losses and prevents leaking, which is
common with an in-line flow meter In addition, the flow meter does not come in contact with
the liquid, thereby preventing corrosion or deterioration of the sensor The Doppler and transit
time flow meters operate on a similar principle, but the technology varies significantly The
accuracy of ultrasonic flow meter measurements relies on proper mounting

1. Transit Time Flow Meters / Time Difference / Time Of Fligh

This device measure flow by “measuring the time taken for an ultrasonic energy pulse to
traverse a pipe section, both with and against the flow of the liquid within the pipe”

Construction

It consists of two transducers mounted exterior to the pipe wall of known cross section. When
one act as electronic oscillator the other act as detector and vice versa. An electronic
oscillator is connected to supply ultrasonic waves which is working as transmitter Detector
serve as a receiver

Working

• Transit time ultrasonic flowmeters transmit and receive ultrasonic waves by two transducers
attached to a change over switch
• Flow meters measure the difference in time from when an ultrasonic signal is transmitted
and is received between transducers in both the upstream and downstream directions in the
pipe
• A comparison is made of upstream and downstream measurements
• At no flow conditions, it takes the same time to travel upstream and downstream between
the transducers
• When flow is present, sound moves faster if traveling in the same direction and slower if
moving against it

• Since the ultrasonic signal must traverse the pipe to be received by the sensor, the liquid
cannot be comprised of a significant amount of solids or bubbles as the high frequency sound
will be too weak to travel across the pipe
27
• The time (tAB) for the ultrasonic energy from transducer A to transducer B is given by

tAB = L/ (C + V. cos θ)

• The time (tBA) to go from B to A is given by tBA = L/(C – V.cos θ) where C is the speed of
sound in the fluid ,v is the flow velocity ,L is the acoustic path length in the fluid ,θ is the
angle of the path with respect to the pipe axis.

• By combining and simplifying, the time difference tAB and by tBA is calculated as

Δt = tBA – tAB = 2.L.V. cos θ/C2 -V2 cos2 θ

X is the projected length of the path along the pipe direction

• Assume X = LCosθ and take C2 as common 2VX/C2 / 1-(V/C)2cos2 θ

• As V is much smaller than C, V< <C, (V/C)2 =0≤1

Δt=2VX/C2

V = C2 .Δt/2 L cos θ

As the cross-sectional area of the pipe section is known, the product of area and velocity will
yield the volumetric flow rate

• This technology can be very accurate and is used for custody transfer (meaning accounting
accurately for an expensive fluid) of natural gas and petroleum liquids

Advantages

Handles high pressures and extreme temperatures

Can be clamped to the outside of a pipe without penetration

Low maintenance

Highly reliable

Disadvantages

High cost

Sensitivity to process vibration

28
 Doppler Ultrasonic Flow Meters / Frequency Shift

Principle

Doppler Effect is a method for measuring linear velocity. “When a ultrasonic beam is focused
on an Object, the beam will be reflected back to the source. But if the object is moving, the
frequency of the signal received back will differ from that of the transmitted signal. This
difference in frequency (Doppler shift) becomes a measure of the velocity of the object”

Construction

It consists of piezoelectric crystal for transmiiting and receiving function

Crystal is mounted outside the pipe wall

Working

• The Doppler ultrasonic flow meter operates on the principle of the Doppler Effect, which
was documented by Austrian physicist and mathematician Christian Johann Doppler in 1842
• He stated that the frequencies of the sound waves received by an observer are dependent
upon the motion of the source or observer in relation to the source of the sound
• Continuous wave ultrasonic signal is generated with the help of a piezoelectric crystal
oscillator
• This propogates through the fluid having uniform velocity
• Sonic signal is scattered by suspended particles in the fluid and is returned through the pipe
wall to a receiving crystal
The flow velocity is given by

V = Δf.Ct/(2.fo . cos θ) = Δf.K

where Δf is the Difference between transmitted and received frequency ,fo is the frequency of
transmission, θ is the angle of the transmitter and receiver crystal with respect to the pipe axis
,Ct is the Velocity of sound in the transducer.

The flow meter measures the frequency shift, which is linearly proportional to the flow rate
• This value is multiplied by the internal diameter of the pipe to derive volumetric flow

29
• As the Doppler ultrasonic flow meter relies on particles flowing in the liquid to operate,
consideration must be given to the lower limits for concentrations and sizes of solids or
bubble
s • In addition, the liquid must flow at a rate high enough to keep the solids suspended
• Used for measurement in liquid slurries, aerated liquids or liquids with some small or large
amount on suspended solids
Advantages

Obstruction less flow

Can be installed outside the pipes
Corrosion resistant
Relative low power consumption
Disadvantages
Non uniformity of particle distribution in the pipe cross section may result in a incorrectly
computed mean velocity
The meter is also sensitive to changes in density and temperature
These problems make Doppler flowmeters unsuitable for highly accurate measurement
applications.

LASER DOPPLER ANEMOMETER / LASER DOPPLER VELOCIMETRY (LDV)

It is an optical type fluid velocity meter, used to measure instantaneous velocity of gas or
liquid flowing in a transparent channel
Principle
When a narrow laser beam or radio beam or ultrasonic beam is focused on an object, the
beam will be reflected back to the source. But if the object is moving, the frequency of the
signal received back will differ from that of the transmitted signal. This difference in
frequency (Doppler shift) becomes a measure of the velocity of the object.
Construction
It consists of a continuous laser source (an argon laser or He-Ne laser) Transmitting optics,
including a beam splitter that splits the laser beam into two equal intensity beams ,A focusing
lens to focus the split laser beams at an intersection point ,A photomultiplier tube Signal
conditioner and a Signal processor.

Working
• The laser source sends a beam that is split by a beam splitter into two beams of equal
intensity
• The two parallel beams are focused inside the fluid where the fluid flow rate is to be
measured

30
 • In the region of intersection, interference fringe patteren of high and low intensity is
formed
• When the suspended particles in the fluid pass through the region of high intensity they
would scatter the light
• The scattered light experiences a Doppler shift in frequency that is directly proportional to
the flow velocity
• The light is received by the receiver lens and directed to a photomultiplier tube (PMT)
• An electronic signal processing circuitry process the detector output
• This would be a varying electrical signal whose frequency is proportional to the speed at
which the suspended particles cross the interference fringesthat is proportional to frequency
shift. This shift then gives an indication of flow velocity.
The gap between the fringes is given by 𝑦 = ( /2 )𝑛 ( 𝜃/ 2 )
The frequency „f ‟ of electrical signals produced by a particle moving with velocity „V‟ is
given by

where  is the Laser wavelength θ is the angle of the beam f is the frequency of the signal
Advantages
• Non contact type measurement
• The device does not disturb the flow during measurement
• Device measure velocity directly
• Highly accurate
• Can be used to measure flow of both gases and liquids
Disadvantages
Requires transparent channels
• Expensive
• Cannot be used on clean flow

ULTRASONIC LEVEL MEASUREMT

Ultrasonic level detectors operate by the absorption of acoustic energy as it travels from
source to receiver of a vibrating diaphragm face, oscillating at 35 to 40 KHz. It operates by
generating an ultrasonic pulse and measuring the time it takes for the echo to return.

31
The ultrasonic wave sent by the Transmitter T is reflected at the interface and received back
by the receiver crystal R. As level changes from l1 and l2, the transit time also changes.
Measurement can be made on the basis of

(i) the time required by the echo to reach the receiver (Fathometer)

(ii) on the basis of change of phase of the wave during this time. (phase sensitive detector)
The liquid phase method is used in storage tanks of oils and chemicals and for air-craft or
marine equipment tanks. The vapour phase method is used in mines, oil-wells, shafts.
Piezoelectric crystals such as quartz or barium titanate used with a frequency range from 30
to 300 kHz.

ULTRASONIC RANGE DETECTOR

• Level sensing used from the top in liquid filled tanks

. • Provides quite accurate results, Easy to use and inexpensive.

• This scheme uses a counter to count the time in terms of pulses. A pulse is required to
initiate the measurement, till the echo is received in terms of a pulse.

Advantages

a) Non-contact type measurement techniques.

b) Ability to measure without making physical contact with the process material.

c) They have no moving parts.

d) The measurement is independent of composition, density, moisture, conductivity or

dielectric constant of the process fluid.

32
Disadvantages

a) An ultrasonic transmitter is subject to many interferences, which affect the strength of the
echo it receives.

b) Temperature compensation is essential in ultrasonic level measurement.

c) The dirt, irregular and slope surfaces affect the accuracy of the measurement.

Temperature compensation of ultrasound level detector

• Temperature compensation is essential in ultrasonic level measurement because the

velocity of sound is proportional to the square root of temperature and,

• In case of air, it changes by about 0.6 meter/second for per °C change in temperature. The
speed of travel rises with temperature, and it amounts to about 0.18% per °C.

Applications

• Ultrasonic level measuring devices can be used for both continuous and point
measurements.

• The point measuring ultrasonic detectors are used for measurement of gas/liquid,
liquid/liquid, or gas/solid interfaces

SMART SENSORS – INTRODUCTION

Fig (a) Typical intelligent sensor and actuator

SENSORS are devices that respond to physical stimulus like heat, light, sound, pressure,
magnetism, motion etc., and convert that into an electrical signal. They perform an input
function.

Actuators are devices which perform an output function and are used to control some
external device, for example movement.

Both sensors and actuators are used as intelligent components of instrumentation systems.
They are used as field devices.

33
Properties of intelligent field devices

1. automatic ranging and calibration through a built-in digital system,

2. auto-acquisition and storage of calibration constants in local memory of the field
device,
3. autoconfiguration and verification of hardware for correct operation following
internal checks,
4. autocorrection of offsets, time and temperature drifts,
5. auto linearization of nonlinear transfer characteristics,
6. self-tuning control algorithms,
7. control programme may be locally stored or downloaded from a host system and
dynamic reconfiguration performed,
8. control is implementable through signal bus and a host system,
9. condition monitoring is also used for fault diagnosis and communication through a
serial bus
Stack-block simplified version

ASPU – Analog signal processing unit (supply, amplification and filters)

Data conversion module – ADC or from frequency to digital converter

Microprocessors – for further information processing and bus interfacing for communication

Primary Sensors

• A smart sensor is a sensor that contain an embedded Digital Motion Processor

(DMP). The advantage of this is that it can take input from the physical environment
and uses built-in compute resources to perform predefined functions upon detection of

34
 specific input and then process data before passing it on. The processed data is then
shared to the rest of the device through a serial interface.
• A base sensor is a sensor that does not include an embedded Digital Motion
Processor, or DMP. This typically contains just the sensor itself, while all processing
and calculation work is done by the manufacturer.
- For reliable operation of a sensor, environmental conditions have to be maintained
where parasitic effects do exist.
- For integrating processing and sensing units, attention has long been on the type of
materials that could be so used.
- Silicon has been an element of interest for primary sensing elements.
Electrical behaviour of silicon changes with change in temperature , electrical and magnetic
fields, stress/strain, radiation and even doping

Single chip pressure sensor with signal conditioning units

• It consists of a thin, deformable silicon diaphragm with piezoresistors arranged along

the edges of the diaphragm.
• These piezoresistors are then connected in the form of a bridge circuit.
Excitation:

• Excitation – term used for “supply” to the primary sensors or “supply for the entire
chip including the processing units”
• Electronic processing units – ac supply or else pulsed form supply may be required
for phase sensitive detection in the processor unit
Amplification: considering the output of the sensor to be generally small, amplification is
essential in all smart sensors

Filters: Analog filters are often used because, the digital type, consume large real time
processing power.

35
Converters: Data conversion from analog amplitude to frequency is done for convenience of
signal transmission, internally or externally and for subsequent digital conversion. VCOs are
used for this purpose.

RADIATION AND INFRARED PYROMETERS

An infrared (IR) thermometer is a noncontact radiant energy detector. Every object in the
world radiates IR energy. The amount of radiant energy emitted is proportional to the
temperature of an object. Noncontact thermometers measure the intensity of the radiant
energy and produce a signal proportional to the target temperature. The temperature of the
material determines both the quantity and the type of energy radiated. As the temperature
rises the wavelength of radiation drops and its frequencies. For example, at -1000C, the range
of radiant energy wavelengths is between 10 and 10 m, while at 1000C they are between 1
and 10µm. As the temperature rises, the dominant form of heat radiation shifts toward the
shorter wavelengths: IR (2 µm to 20µm), near IR (0.7 to 2 visible (0.4 to 0.7 µm), and UV
(0.04 to 0.4m). At Extremely high temperatures, the hot objects will also radiate x-rays and
gamma rays.

In industrial applications the bulk of thermal radiation occurs in the IR range, and therefore
these Thermometers are often referred to as IR thermometers. This section begins with a
discussion of some theoretical aspects of pyrometry, including such topics as emissivity. The
description of the specific thermometer designs, features, and installation requirements
follows. The section concludes with some definitions of terms used in radiation pyrometry
and a list of material for further reading.

THEORETICAL RELATIONSHIPS

Radiation pyrometry stems from Plank‟s quantum theory, developed around 1900, and from
Stefan-Boltzmann‟s law for total radiated energy. According to the Stefan-Boltzmann
equation, the total radiant power density emitted () by an object is directly related to the
emissivity of that object (E) multiplied by a constant (SB) and by the 4th power of absolute
temperature (T):

W=(E)(SB)T4

Where W is in W/cm2 E is a fraction (unity for a blackbody)

SB is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, having a value of 5.6x10-12 WCm 2K 4

T is absolute temperature of the object in degrees Kelvin

Planck‟s law of radiation goes one step beyond Stefan-Boltzmann‟s law and predicts the level
of radiation emitted per unit surface area of a blackbody at each specific wavelength.
Planck‟s equation is rather complex and therefore is not used much in the everyday work of
instrument engineers. According to Plank‟s law, the radiation emission peaks at shorter and
shorter wavelengths as the temperature rises. This is one can estimate the temperature of a hot
iron in a fire (the shorter the wavelength emitted the whiter and therefore the hotter it is) and

36
why the dotted line connecting the peaks at ferent temperatures is leaning to the left. This
shift in peak values is expressed by Wien‟s law of displacement, relating the wavelength at
maximum radiation

Based on the above laws, one can build thermometers by measuring either the radiation at
specific wavelengths (optical and narrow-band) or all the radiation (total or wide-band).
Changes in process material emissivity; radiation from other sources; and losses in radiation
due to dirt, dust, smoke, or atmospheric absorption can introduce errors into the total- or
singlewavelength pyrometers. For these reasons many users decide to use the more expensive
ratio pyrometers.

Thermal radiation is a universal property of matter that is absent only when the material is an
inert gas, like helium, or is at absolute zero temperature. From this property of matter the
technique of radiation pyrometry has been developed so that it is possible to infer the
temperature of an object without contacting it. This is done with an optical system, which
collects some or all of the visible and/or IR energy, sometimes through a filter, and focuses it
on a detector. The detector converts the concentrated energy to an electrical signal, a complex
function of the absolute temperature.

Total Radiation Pyrometers

Broadband (total) radiation pyrometers attempt to measure as much of the radiant energy
coming from a hot body as possible. The simplest of the three types (total, narrow, ratio), it
has substantially no selectivity for specific wavelengths other than a cutoff inherent in the
optical system and is dependent on the total emittance of the surface being measured.

A calibration control on the readout instrument permits the user to compensate for this error,
which corrects the reading as long as the emittance does not change. The proper setting of the
adjustment is made with the aid of a second thermometer known to be correct; or, knowing
the nature of the target and referring to a table giving total emissivity Broadband radiation
pyrometers must have an unobstructed sighting path to the target. The presence of smoke or
carbon dioxide will absorb some of the radiant energy and cause a low reading.

37
 The optical system must be kept clean, with a sighting window protected from any corrosive
gases that otherwise would come in contact with it. In furnaces, a closed end sighting tube is
frequently used to protect the optics and to provide a clear sighting path. The back end of the
tube assumes the same temperature as the furnace. Water or air cooling is sometimes used to
keep the housing temperature cool on these installations. Ambient temperature compensation
is required for those total radiation pyrometers using a thermopile detector

Nickel wire, having a temperature coefficient opposite to that of the thermopile wires, is most
often utilized. For low-temperature work, a thermostatically controlled housing is often
employed to eliminate any ambient temperature fluctuations.

Advantages:

Low cost

No need of contact

Fast response speed

Disadvantages:

Emissivity error are introduced

Error due to the absorption of the radiation by the carbon dioxide, water or other apparently
transparent gases

OPTICAL PYROMETERS

Optical pyrometers are narrow-band or two-color radiation pyrometers that operate in the
visible spectrum around the 0.65µm point. The human eye, acting as the detector in the
manually balanced type, compares a source of known radiant energy generated within the
instrument by a calibrated tungsten lamp to the incoming unknown source. A filter interposed
between the eye and both sources of energy cuts out the shorter wavelengths.

This serves a dual purpose:

(1) It minimizes the difference between eyes, permitting an easier color match, and

(2) It permits an extension of the temperature range beyond the point where the eye could no
longer tolerate the amount of energy if viewed directly

The instrument is shaped to be held in the hand and up to the eye so that it may be sighted on
the target. An adjustable focus permits the operator to focus an image of the source whose
temperature is to be determined. The filament of the standard source is placed on the same
plane as this image so that the two appear superimposed on one another when viewed through
the eyepiece. A null type of balance is usually used where a rheostat, moving against a
calibrated dial, is manually rotated to vary the current through the standard source until it just
disappears into the field of the unknown.

38
A slight modification of this principle maintains the standard source constant and varies the
amount of interposing absorbing gate opening in the optical path. The range of the manual
optical pyrometer is limited on the low end to a minimum of 1400°F (760°C), since there is
insufficient emission of visible light for an accurate comparison below this figure. At 2400°F
(1316°C), the image would become too bright to look at directly, but filters are usually
interposed to permit readings as high as 6300°F (3500°C). The use of the human eye as the
detector restricts accuracy somewhat. This is because the eye responds to both colour and
brightness rather than directly to energy and no two Eyes are alike. However, it is possible to
detect both a colour and a brightness match by adjusting to the minimum difference between
known and unknown.

The manual optical pyrometer is a selfcontained unit with its own power supply for operating
the current for the known radiant energy source. It can be mounted in place or handheld by an
operator as he takes a sighting. Its advantages include that It is a light, portable, and self-
contained unit of reasonable accuracy if sighted into a near blackbody furnace.

Its disadvantages are:

1. It requires the operator to adjust the temperature dial manually. It is not suitable for alarm or
control functions.

2. It can only be used at relatively high temperatures where plenty of visible energy is given off.

3. It is subject to emissivity errors inherent to a narrowband radiation pyrometer.

39
ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER / MAG FLOW METER:

Used for high corrosive application and in measurement of erosive slurries

Principle

Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction: “whenever a conductor of length „l‟ moves with
a velocity „v‟ perpendicular to a magnetic field „B‟, an emf „e‟ is induced in a mutually
perpendicular direction” which is given by

e = Blv -1

where e is the induced voltage B is the Magnetic flux density (Wb/m2 ) ,l is the length of
conductor (m) ,v is the Velocity of the conductor (m/s) conductor here is a fluid.

The volume flow rate Q is given by Q = (πd 2 /4) v -2

This is to convert a velocity measurement to volumetric flowrate where d is the diameter of

the pipe v is the average velocity of flow Substitute 1 in 2, we get v = e/Bl -3

Q = πd 2e/4Bl Q = Ke where K is a meter constant Thus the volume flow rate is directly
proportional to the induced emf.

Construction

It consists of a non-conducting (short circuit the available emf) pipe section made up of glass-
reinforced polyester or a nonmagnetic (so that magnetic field can penetrate fluid) pipe section
lined with an appropriate electrical conductor such as Teflon, Fiberglass

• On alternate sides of this pipe section are the magnet coils which produces magnetic field
and is perpendicular to the flow of liquid through the pipe and electrodes

• If metal pipe is used then electrically insulating liner is provided to the inside of pipe

• Liquid act as a conductor

40
Working

As the liquid passes through the pipe section, it also passes through the magnetic field setup
inducing a voltage in the liquid

• This voltage is detected by a pair of electrodes mounted in the pipe wall.

The amplitude of the induced voltage is directly proportional to the liquid velocity

• This voltage is conducted by the electrodes to a separate converter which in effect is a

precision voltmeter capable of accurately measuring the voltage generated and converting
that voltage to the desired control signals.

• These may be equivalent electronic analog signals, typically (4-20) mA DC, or a frequency
or scaled pulse output.

41