DRAINAGE CRITERIA MANUAL (V.

RUNOFF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING:

HYDROLOGY
COURSE MODULE COURSE UNIT WEEK
9 2 15-16
Rainfall-Runoff Relation

 Read course and unit objectives

 Read study guide prior to class attendance
 Read required learning resources; refer to unit
terminologies for jargons
 Proactively participate in classroom discussions
 Participate in weekly discussion board (Canvas)
 Answer and submit course unit tasks

At the end of this unit, the students are expected to:

1. Understand the appropriate diagrams the hydrologic cycle and the different processes
and storages within the cycle.
2. Perform calculation related to measurement, movements and storages in the different
processes of the hydrologic cycle.

Applied Hydrology by Ven Te Chow, David Maidment and Larry Mays; McGRAW-HILL
International Editions; 1988

1.0 OVERVIEW

The importance of accurate runoff quantification cannot be overstated. Estimates of peak rate
of runoff, runoff volume, and the time distribution of flow provide the basis for all planning,

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design, and construction of drainage facilities. Erroneous hydrology results in works being
planned and built that are either undersized, oversized, or out of hydraulic balance. On the
other hand, it must be kept in mind that the result of the runoff analysis is an approximation.
Thus, the intent of this chapter of the Manual is to provide a reasonably dependable and
consistent method of approximating the characteristics of urban runoff for areas of Colorado
and the United States having similar meteorology and hydrology to what is found within the
Denver region.

Photograph RO-1—Devastating flooding from the South Platte River in 1965 emphasizes the
importance of accurate flood flow projections.

Five methods of hydrologic analysis are described in this Manual: (1) the Rational Method; (2)
the Colorado Urban Hydrograph Procedure (CUHP) for generating hydrographs from
watersheds, (3) the EPA’s Storm Water Management Model (SWMM), mostly for combining
and routing the hydrographs generated using CUHP; (4) use of published runoff information;
and (5) statistical analyses. CUHP has been calibrated for the Denver area using data that were
collected for a variety of watershed conditions and has been used extensively since 1969. The
vast majority of major drainage facilities within the District have been designed based upon the
hydrology calculated using the CUHP and a previously used routing model used by the District,
namely the Urban Drainage Stormwater Model (UDSWM). In 2005 the District has began using

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the EPA’s SWMM and has also upgraded the CUHP software to be compatible with the EPA
model.

There have been hydrologic studies carried out for a majority of the major drainageways within
the

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District. Often the use of published flow data (available from the District) may make the
need for additional hydrologic analysis along major drainageways for a particular study
unnecessary.

Statistical analyses may be used in certain situations. The use of this approach requires the
availability of acceptable, appropriate, and adequate data.

Calculations for the Rational Method can be carried out by hand or using the UD-Rational
Spreadsheet that may be downloaded from the District’s Web site (www.udfcd.org). CUHP-
SWMM calculations are extensive and are best carried out using the computer models
provided by the District as an attachment to the CD version of this Manual or downloaded
from the District’s Web site.

Most of this chapter focuses on the Rational Method and on the CUHP method in
combination with SWMM routing. The Rational Method is generally used for smaller
catchments when only the peak flow rate or the total volume of runoff is needed (e.g., storm
sewer sizing or simple detention basin sizing).

CUHP-SWMM is used for larger catchments and when a hydrograph of the storm event is
needed (e.g., sizing large detention facilities). A summary of applicability of both the methods is
provided in Table RO- 1.

Table RO-1—Applicability of Hydrologic Methods

Watershed Size (acres) Is the Rational Method Applicable? Is CUHP Applicable?

0 to 5 Yes Yes (1)
5 to 90 Yes Yes (1)
90 to 160 Yes Yes
160 to 3,000 No Yes (2)
Yes (if subdivided into smaller
Greater than 3,000 No
catchments) (2)
(1) If one-minute unit hydrograph is used.
(2) Subdividing into smaller sub-catchments and routing the resultant hydrographs using SWMM may be needed
to accurately model a catchment with areas of different soil types or percentages of imperviousness.

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2.0 RATIONAL METHOD

For urban catchments that are not complex and are generally 160 acres or less in size, it is
acceptable that the design storm runoff be analyzed by the Rational Method. This method was
introduced in 1889 and is still being used in most engineering offices in the United States. Even
though this method has frequently come under academic criticism for its simplicity, no other
practical drainage design method has evolved to such a level of general acceptance by the
practicing engineer. The Rational Method properly understood and applied can produce
satisfactory results for urban storm sewer and small on-site detention design.

2.1 Rational Formula

The Rational Method is based on the Rational

Formula:
(RO-1)
Q  CIA

in which:

Q = the maximum rate of runoff (cfs)

C = a runoff coefficient that is the ratio between the runoff volume from an area and
the average rate of rainfall depth over a given duration for that area

I = average intensity of rainfall in inches per hour for a duration equal to the time of
concentration,
tc

A = area (acres)

Actually, Q has units of inches per hour per acre (in/hr/ac); however, since this rate of in/hr/ac
differs from cubic feet per second (cfs) by less than one percent, the more common units of cfs
are used. The time of concentration is typically defined as the time required for water to flow
from the most remote point of the area to the point being investigated. The time of
concentration should be based upon a flow length and path that results in a time of
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concentration for only a portion of the area if that portion of the catchment produces a higher
rate of runoff.

The general procedure for Rational Method calculations for a single catchment is as follows:

1. Delineate the catchment boundary. Measure its area.

2. Define the flow path from the upper-most portion of the catchment to the design point. This flow path
should be divided into reaches of similar flow type (e.g., overland flow, shallow swale flow, gutter flow,
etc.). The length and slope of each reach should be measured.

3. Determine the time of concentration, tc, for the catchment.

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4. Find the rainfall intensity, I, for the design storm using the calculated tc and the rainfall intensity-
duration-frequency curve. (See Section 4.0 of the RAINFALL chapter.)

5. Determine the runoff coefficient, C.

6. Calculate the peak flow rate from the watershed using Equation RO-1.

2.2 Assumptions

The basic assumptions that are often made when the Rational Method is applied are:

1. The computed maximum rate of runoff to the design point is a function of the average rainfall rate during
the time of concentration to that point.

2. The depth of rainfall used is one that occurs from the start of the storm to the time of concentration,
and the design rainfall depth during that time period is converted to the average rainfall intensity for
that period.

3. The maximum runoff rate occurs when the entire area is contributing flow. However, this assumption has
to be modified when a more intensely developed portion of the catchment with a shorter time of
concentration produces a higher rate of maximum runoff than the entire catchment with a longer time of
concentration.

2.3 Limitations

The Rational Method is an adequate method for approximating the peak rate and total volume
of runoff from a design rainstorm in a given catchment. The greatest drawback to the Rational
Method is that it normally provides only one point on the runoff hydrograph. When the areas
become complex and where sub-catchments come together, the Rational Method will tend to
overestimate the actual flow, which results in oversizing of drainage facilities. The Rational
Method provides no direct information needed to route hydrographs through the drainage
facilities. One reason the Rational Method is limited to small areas is that good design practice
requires the routing of hydrographs for larger catchments to achieve an economic design.

Another disadvantage of the Rational Method is that with typical design procedures one
normally assumes that all of the design flow is collected at the design point and that there is
no water running overland to the next design point. However, this is not the fault of the
Rational Method but of the design procedure. The Rational Method must be modified, or
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another type of analysis must be used, when analyzing an existing system that is under-
designed or when analyzing the effects of a major storm on a system designed for the minor
storm.

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2.4 Time of Concentration

One of the basic assumptions underlying the Rational Method is that runoff is a function of
the average rainfall rate during the time required for water to flow from the most remote part
of the drainage area under consideration to the design point. However, in practice, the time
of concentration can be an empirical value that results in reasonable and acceptable peak
flow calculations. The time of concentration relationships recommended in this Manual are
based in part on the rainfall-runoff data collected in the Denver metropolitan area and are
designed to work with the runoff coefficients also recommended in this Manual. As a result,
these recommendations need to be used with a great deal of caution whenever working in
areas that may differ significantly from the climate or topography found in the Denver region.

For urban areas, the time of concentration, tc, consists of an initial time or overland flow time,
ti, plus the travel time, tt, in the storm sewer, paved gutter, roadside drainage ditch, or
drainage channel. For non- urban areas, the time of concentration consists of an overland
flow time, ti, plus the time of travel in a defined form, such as a swale, channel, or
drainageway. The travel portion, tt, of the time of concentration can be estimated from the
hydraulic properties of the storm sewer, gutter, swale, ditch, or drainageway. Initial time, on
the other hand, will vary with surface slope, depression storage, surface cover, antecedent
rainfall, and infiltration capacity of the soil, as well as distance of surface flow. The time of
concentration is represented by Equation RO-2 for both urban and non-urban areas:

tc  ti  tt
(RO-2)

in which:

tc = time of concentration (minutes)

ti = initial or overland flow time (minutes)

tt = travel time in the ditch, channel, gutter, storm sewer, etc. (minutes)

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2.4.1 Initial Flow Time

The initial or overland flow time, ti, may be calculated using equation RO-3:

0.3951.1  C5
t L
i 0.33
(RO-3)
S

in which:
ti = initial or overland flow time (minutes)
C5 = runoff coefficient for 5-year frequency (from Table RO-5)

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L = length of overland flow (500 ft maximum for non-urban land uses, 300 ft maximum
for urban land uses)

S = average basin slope (ft/ft)

Equation RO-3 is adequate for distances up to 500 feet. Note that, in some urban
watersheds, the overland flow time may be very small because flows quickly channelize.

2.4.2 Overland Travel Time

For catchments with overland and channelized flow, the time of concentration needs to be
considered in combination with the overland travel time, tt, which is calculated using the
hydraulic properties of the swale, ditch, or channel. For preliminary work, the overland travel
time, tt, can be estimated with the help of Figure RO-1 or the following equation (Guo 1999):

V  C S 0.5
vw
(RO-4)

in which:
V = velocity (ft/sec)
Cv = conveyance coefficient (from Table RO-2)
Sw = watercourse slope (ft/ft)
Table RO-2—Conveyance Coefficient, Cv

Type of Land Surface Conveyance Coefficient, Cv

Heavy meadow 2.5
Tillage/field 5
Short pasture and lawns 7
Nearly bare ground 10
Grassed waterway 15
Paved areas and shallow paved swales 20

The time of concentration, tc, is then the sum of the initial flow time, ti, and the travel time, tt, as
per Equation RO-2.

2.4.3 First Design Point Time of Concentration in Urban Catchments

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Using this procedure, the time of concentration at the first design point (i.e., initial flow
time, ti) in an urbanized catchment should not exceed the time of concentration
calculated using Equation RO-5.

L
t
c
180  10 (RO-5)

in which:
tc = maximum time of concentration at the first design point in an urban watershed
(minutes)

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L = waterway length (ft)

Equation RO-5 was developed using the rainfall-runoff data collected in the Denver
region and, in essence, represents regional “calibration” of the Rational Method.

The first design point is the point where runoff first enters the storm sewer system. An
example of definition of first design point is provided in Figure RO-2.

Normally, Equation RO-5 will result in a lesser time of concentration at the first design point
and will govern in an urbanized watershed. For subsequent design points, the time of
concentration is calculated by accumulating the travel times in downstream drainageway
reaches.

2.4.4 Minimum Time of Concentration

Should the calculations result in a tc of less than 10 minutes, it is recommended that a
minimum value of 10 minutes be used for non-urban watersheds. The minimum tc
recommended for urbanized areas should not be less than 5 minutes and if calculations
indicate a lesser value, use 5 minutes instead.

2.4.5 Common Errors in Calculating Time of Concentration

A common mistake in urbanized areas is to assume travel velocities that are too slow. Another
common error is to not check the runoff peak resulting from only part of the catchment.
Sometimes a lower portion of the catchment or a highly impervious area produces a larger
peak than that computed for the whole catchment. This error is most often encountered when
the catchment is long or the upper portion contains grassy parkland and the lower portion is
developed urban land.

2.5 Intensity

The rainfall intensity, I, is the average rainfall rate in inches per hour for the period of
maximum rainfall of a given recurrence frequency having a duration equal to the time of
concentration.

After the design storm’s recurrence frequency has been selected, a graph should be made
showing rainfall intensity versus time. The procedure for obtaining the local data and drawing

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such a graph is explained and illustrated in Section 4 of the RAINFALL chapter of this Manual.
The intensity for a design point is taken from the graph or through the use of Equation RA-3
using the calculated tc.

2.6 Watershed Imperviousness

All parts of a watershed can be considered either pervious or impervious. The pervious part is
that area where water can readily infiltrate into the ground. The impervious part is the area
that does not readily allow water to infiltrate into the ground, such as areas that are paved or
covered with buildings and sidewalks or compacted unvegetated soils. In urban hydrology, the
percentage of pervious and impervious land is important. The percentage of impervious area
increases when urbanization occurs

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and the rainfall-runoff relationships change significantly. The total amount of runoff volume
normally increases, the time to the runoff peak rate decreases, and the peak runoff rates increase.

Photograph RO-2—Urbanization (impervious area) increases runoff volumes, peak

discharges, frequency of runoff, and receiving stream degradation.

When analyzing a watershed for design purposes, the probable future percent of impervious
area must be estimated. A complete tabulation of recommended values of the total percent
of imperviousness is provided in Table RO-3 and Figures RO-3 through RO-5, the latter
developed by the District after the evolution of residential growth patterns since 1990.

2.7 Runoff Coefficient

The runoff coefficient, C, represents the integrated effects of infiltration, evaporation,

retention, and interception, all of which affect the volume of runoff. The determination
of C requires judgment and understanding on the part of the engineer.

Based in part on the data collected by the District since 1969, an empirical set of relationships
between C and the percentage imperviousness for the 2-year and smaller storms was
developed and are expressed in Equations RO-6 and RO-7 for Type A and C/D Soil groups
(Urbonas, Guo and Tucker 1990). For Type B soil group the impervious value is found by taking
the arithmetic average of the values found using these two equations for Type A and Type C/D
soil groups. For larger storms (i.e., 5-, 10, 25-, 50- and 100-year) correction factors listed in
Table RO-4 are applied to the values calculated using these two equations.
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Table RO-3—Recommended Percentage Imperviousness Values

Land Use or Percentage

Surface Characteristics Imperviousness
Business:
Commercial areas 95
Neighborhood areas 85
Residential:
Single-family *
Multi-unit (detached) 60
Multi-unit (attached) 75
Half-acre lot or larger *
Apartments 80
Industrial:
Light areas 80
Heavy areas 90
Parks, cemeteries 5
Playgrounds 10
Schools 50
Railroad yard areas 15
Undeveloped Areas:
Historic flow analysis 2
Greenbelts, agricultural 2
Off-site flow analysis 45
(when land use not defined)
Streets:
Paved 100
Gravel (packed) 40
Drive and walks 90
Roofs 90
Lawns, sandy soil 0
Lawns, clayey soil 0

* See Figures RO-3 through RO-5 for percentage imperviousness.

CA  K  1.31i 3  1.44i 2  1.135i  0.12 for CA  0, otherwise CA = 0 (RO-6)

C  K  0.858i 3  0.786i 2  0.774i 

0.04
CD
 (RO-7)

C B  C A  CCD  2

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in which:

i = % imperviousness/100 expressed as a decimal (see Table RO-3)

CA = Runoff coefficient for Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Type A soils

CB = Runoff coefficient for NRCS Type B soils

CCD = Runoff coefficient for NRCS Type C and D soils

KA = Correction factor for Type A soils defined in Table RO-4

KCD = Correction factor for Type C and D soils defined in Table RO-4

Table RO-4—Correction Factors KA and KCD for Use with Equations RO-6 and RO-7

Storm Return Period

NRCS Soil Type 2-Year 5-Year 10-Year 25-Year 50-Year 100-Year
C and D 0 -0.10i + 0.11 -0.18i + 0.21 -0.28i + 0.33 -0.33i + 0.40 -0.39i + 0.46
A 0 -0.08i + 0.09 -0.14i + 0.17 -0.19i + 0.24 -0.22i + 0.28 -0.25i + 0.32

The values for various catchment imperviousnesses and storm return periods are presented
graphically in Figures RO-6 through RO-8, and are tabulated in Table RO-5. These coefficients
were developed for the Denver region to work in conjunction with the time of concentration
recommendations in Section 2.4. Use of these coefficients and this procedure outside of the
semi-arid climate found in the Denver region may not be valid. The UD-Rational spreadsheet
performs all the needed calculations to find the runoff coefficient given the soil type and
imperviousness and the reader may want to take advantage of this macro-enabled Excel
workbook that is available for download from the District’s web site www.udfcd.org under
“Download” – “Technical Downloads.”

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See Examples 7.1 and 7.2 that illustrate the Rational method. The use of the Rational method in
storm sewer design is illustrated in Example 6.13 of the STREETS/INLETS/STORM SEWERS
chapter.

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Table RO-5— Runoff Coefficients, C

Percentage
Imperviousness Type C and D NRCS Hydrologic Soil Groups
2-yr 5-yr 10-yr 25-yr 50-yr 100-yr
0% 0.04 0.15 0.25 0.37 0.44 0.50
5% 0.08 0.18 0.28 0.39 0.46 0.52
10% 0.11 0.21 0.30 0.41 0.47 0.53
15% 0.14 0.24 0.32 0.43 0.49 0.54
20% 0.17 0.26 0.34 0.44 0.50 0.55
25% 0.20 0.28 0.36 0.46 0.51 0.56
30% 0.22 0.30 0.38 0.47 0.52 0.57
35% 0.25 0.33 0.40 0.48 0.53 0.57
40% 0.28 0.35 0.42 0.50 0.54 0.58
45% 0.31 0.37 0.44 0.51 0.55 0.59
50% 0.34 0.40 0.46 0.53 0.57 0.60
55% 0.37 0.43 0.48 0.55 0.58 0.62
60% 0.41 0.46 0.51 0.57 0.60 0.63
65% 0.45 0.49 0.54 0.59 0.62 0.65
70% 0.49 0.53 0.57 0.62 0.65 0.68
75% 0.54 0.58 0.62 0.66 0.68 0.71
80% 0.60 0.63 0.66 0.70 0.72 0.74
85% 0.66 0.68 0.71 0.75 0.77 0.79
90% 0.73 0.75 0.77 0.80 0.82 0.83
95% 0.80 0.82 0.84 0.87 0.88 0.89
100% 0.89 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.95 0.96
TYPE B NRCS HYDROLOGIC SOILS GROUP
0% 0.02 0.08 0.15 0.25 0.30 0.35
5% 0.04 0.10 0.19 0.28 0.33 0.38
10% 0.06 0.14 0.22 0.31 0.36 0.40
15% 0.08 0.17 0.25 0.33 0.38 0.42
20% 0.12 0.20 0.27 0.35 0.40 0.44
25% 0.15 0.22 0.30 0.37 0.41 0.46
30% 0.18 0.25 0.32 0.39 0.43 0.47
35% 0.20 0.27 0.34 0.41 0.44 0.48
40% 0.23 0.30 0.36 0.42 0.46 0.50
45% 0.26 0.32 0.38 0.44 0.48 0.51
50% 0.29 0.35 0.40 0.46 0.49 0.52
55% 0.33 0.38 0.43 0.48 0.51 0.54
60% 0.37 0.41 0.46 0.51 0.54 0.56
65% 0.41 0.45 0.49 0.54 0.57 0.59
70% 0.45 0.49 0.53 0.58 0.60 0.62
75% 0.51 0.54 0.58 0.62 0.64 0.66
80% 0.57 0.59 0.63 0.66 0.68 0.70
85% 0.63 0.66 0.69 0.72 0.73 0.75
90% 0.71 0.73 0.75 0.78 0.80 0.81
95% 0.79 0.81 0.83 0.85 0.87 0.88
100% 0.89 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.95 0.96

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TABLE RO-5 (Continued)—Runoff Coefficients, C

Percentage
Type A NRCS Hydrologic Soils Group
Imperviousness
2-yr 5-yr 10-yr 25-yr 50-yr 100-yr
0% 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.12 0.16 0.20
5% 0.00 0.02 0.10 0.16 0.20 0.24
10% 0.00 0.06 0.14 0.20 0.24 0.28
15% 0.02 0.10 0.17 0.23 0.27 0.30
20% 0.06 0.13 0.20 0.26 0.30 0.33
25% 0.09 0.16 0.23 0.29 0.32 0.35
30% 0.13 0.19 0.25 0.31 0.34 0.37
35% 0.16 0.22 0.28 0.33 0.36 0.39
40% 0.19 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.38 0.41
45% 0.22 0.27 0.33 0.37 0.40 0.43
50% 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.42 0.45
55% 0.29 0.33 0.38 0.42 0.45 0.47
60% 0.33 0.37 0.41 0.45 0.47 0.50
65% 0.37 0.41 0.45 0.49 0.51 0.53
70% 0.42 0.45 0.49 0.53 0.54 0.56
75% 0.47 0.50 0.54 0.57 0.59 0.61
80% 0.54 0.56 0.60 0.63 0.64 0.66
85% 0.61 0.63 0.66 0.69 0.70 0.72
90% 0.69 0.71 0.73 0.76 0.77 0.79
95% 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.84 0.85 0.86
100% 0.89 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.95 0.96

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Figure RO-1—Estimate of Average Overland Flow Velocity for Use With the Rational Formula

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CATCHMENT CATCHMENT
A B
INLET 1

STORM
SEWER X
CATCHMENT CATCHMENT
C D
INLET 2

STORM
SEWER Y
CATCHMENT CATCHMENT
E F
INLET 3

NOTE:
INLETS 1, 2, 3 AND STORM SEWER X ARE EACH THE "FIRST
DESIGN POINT" AND THE REGIONAL Tc SHOULD BE CHECKED.
STORM SEWER Y IS NOT THE FIRST DESIGN POINT.

Figure RO-2—Diagram of First Design Point

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Figure RO-3— Watershed Imperviousness, Single-Family Residential Ranch Style Houses

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Figure RO-4—Watershed Imperviousness, Single-Family Residential Split-Level Houses

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Figure RO-5—Watershed Imperviousness, Single-Family Residential Two-Story Houses

Figure RO-6—Runoff Coefficient, C, vs. Watershed Percentage Imperviousness NRCS Hydrologic Soil Group A

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Figure RO-7—Runoff Coefficient, C, vs. Watershed Percentage Imperviousness NRCS Hydrologic Soil Group B
 DRAINAGE CRITERIA MANUAL (V. RUNOFF

Figure RO-8—Runoff Coefficient, C, vs. Watershed Percentage Imperviousness NRCS Hydrologic Soil Groups C and D

David Chin, Water Resources Engineering, 3rd Ed., Person , 2013

Bedient, P.B., Huber W.C. and Vieux, B.E. Hydrology and Flood
Plain Analysis, Pearson 4th Ed., Philippine edition
copyright 2010