UNIT-1

Computer Architecture:-
● Computer Architecture is a functional description of requirements and design implementation
for the various parts of a computer.
● It deals with the functional behaviour of computer systems.
● It comes before the computer organisation while designing a computer.
● It refers to the design of the internal workings of a computer system, including the CPU,
memory, and other hardware components.

Computer Organisation:-
● It comes after the decision of Computer Architecture.
● Computer Organization deals with a structural relationship.
● It refers to the operational units and their interconnections that implement the architecture
specification.
Difference between Computer Architecture and Computer Organisation:-

Computer Architecture Computer Organisation

Architecture describes what the computer does. The Organization describes how it does it.

It deals with the functional behaviour of It deals with a structural relationship.

computer systems.

Architecture indicates its hardware. Organisation indicates its performance.

For designing a computer, its architecture is For designing a computer, an organisation is

fixed first. decided after its architecture.

Computer Architecture is also called Instruction Computer Organization is frequently called

Set Architecture (ISA). micro architecture.

It makes the computer’s hardware visible. It offers details on how well the computer
performs.

The software developer is aware of it. It escapes the software programmer’s detection.

Eg: Von-Neumann Architecture, Harvard Eg: Organization of a single Accumulator,

Architecture. Stack organisation.

Peripheral Device:-
● It is defined as the device which provides input/output functions for a computer and serves as
an auxiliary computer device without computing-intensive functionality.

Classification of Peripheral devices:

1. Input Devices: The input device is defined as it converts incoming data and instructions into a
pattern of electrical signals in binary code that are comprehensible to a digital computer.
Example: Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone etc.

2. Output Devices: An output device is generally the reverse of the input process and is used for
sending data from one computer system to another.
Example: Monitors, headphones, printers etc.

3. Storage Devices: Storage devices are used to store data in the system which is required for
performing any operation in the system.
Example: Hard disk, magnetic tape, Flash memory etc.

Function of Computer:-
● Data Processing
● Data Storage
● Data Movement
● Control
Structure of Computer:-
● Main Memory: This structure of the computer is mainly used for storing the data.
● I/O: These structural units of the computer are mainly used for moving data in or out of the
computer.
● System Interconnection: This structural component is held for moving the data and controlling
the signal inside the computer.
● Central Processing Unit: This structural component of the computer performs the controlling
and processing function. Thus, it is also referred to as the processor.

Processor or CPU: The processor can be classified into the components discussed below:
● Control Unit: This unit controls all the operations of the processor.
● Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU): This unit performs the computations while data processing.
● Registers: It is the internal storage unit of the processor.
● CPU Interconnections: This unit provides communication between the control unit, ALU and
registers.

Designing for Performance:-

● Pipelining: Pipelining is the feature of fetching the next instruction while executing the current
instruction .
● On board cache, on board L1 & L2 cache .
● Branch prediction: The processor looks ahead in the instruction code fetched from memory
and predicts which branches, or group of instructions are likely to be processed next.
● Data flow analysis: The processor analyzes which instructions are dependent on each other’s
results, or data, to create an optimized schedule of instructions to prevent delay.
● Speculative execution: Using branch prediction and data flow analysis, some processors
speculatively execute instructions ahead of their actual appearance in the program execution,
holding the results in temporary locations.

Top Level View of Computer function and Interconnection:-

1.Computer Components:
● CPU: The Control Unit (CU) and the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) constitute the Central
Processing Unit (CPU) .
● Input/output (I/O module): Data and instructions need to get into the system and results need
to get out.
● Main memory (RAM): Temporary storage of code and results is needed.
2.Computer Function:
● Fetch: The CPU retrieves an instruction from memory.
● Decode: The CPU interprets the instruction to determine the required action.
● Execute: The CPU carries out the instruction, which might involve arithmetic operations, data
movement, or control decisions.
● Store: The result of the operation is written back to memory if necessary.

3.Interconnection Structures:
● Memory- Receives and sends data. Receives control signals like Read, Write and Timing.
● I/O-
Input-> Receive data from peripheral and send data to computer.
Output-> Receive data from computerand send data to peripheral.
● CPU- Reads instruction and data Sends control signals to other units

4. Bus interconnection:
● Data Bus: Transfers actual data between components.
● Address Bus: Carries the addresses of the memory locations where data is to be read or
written.
● Control Bus: Carries control signals to manage operations (e.g., read/write operations).

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 UNIT-2

Characteristics of Memory System:-

1. Location:
● CPU : This is often in the form of CPU registers and small amount of cache.
● Internal or main: This is the main memory like RAM or ROM. The CPU can directly
access the main memory.
● External or secondary: It comprises of secondary storage devices like hard disks,
magnetic tapes. The CPU doesn’t access these devices directly.

2. Capacity:
● Word size: Words are expressed in bytes (8 bits).
● Number of words: This specifies the number of words available in the particular
memory device.

3. Unit of Transfer:
● It is the maximum number of bits that can be read or written into the memory at a
time.
● In case of main memory, it is mostly equal to word size.
● In case of external memory, unit of transfer is referred to as blocks.

4. Access Method: It is the sequence or order in which memory can be accessed.

● Random Access.
● Serial Access.
● Semi random Access.

5. Performance:The performance parameters are -

● Access Time.
● Memory cycle time.
● Transfer rate.

6. Physical type: Memory devices can be either semiconductor memory like RAM) or magnetic
surface memory (like Hard disks).

7. Physical characteristics: If a memory device continues to hold data even if power is turned
off. The memory device is non-volatile else it is volatile.

8. Organisation: The memories in which data once programmed cannot be erased are called
Non-erasable memories. Memory devices in which data in the memory can be erased is
called erasable memory.

Memory Hierarchy Design:-

1. Registers: Registers are small, high-speed memory units located in the CPU. They are used to
store the most frequently used data and instructions.

2. Cache Memory:
Cache memory is a small, fast memory unit located close to the CPU. It stores frequently used data
and instructions that have been recently accessed from the main memory.
3. Main Memory:

Main memory, also known as RAM (Random Access Memory), is the primary memory of a computer
system.Types of Main Memory

● Static RAM: Static RAM stores the binary information in flip flops and information remains
valid until power is supplied.
● Dynamic RAM: It stores the binary information as a charge on the capacitor.

4. Secondary Storage: Secondary storage, such as hard disk drives (HDD) and solid-state drives
(SSD), is a non-volatile memory unit that has a larger storage capacity than main memory. It is used
to store data and instructions that are not currently in use by the CPU.

5. Magnetic Disk: Magnetic Disks are simply circular plates that are fabricated with either a metal or
a plastic or a magnetized material. The Magnetic disks work at a high speed inside the computer and
these are frequently used.

6. Magnetic Tape:Magnetic Tape is simply a magnetic recording device that is covered with a plastic
film. It is generally used for the backup of data. In the case of a magnetic tape, the access time for a
computer is a little slower and therefore, it requires some amount of time for accessing the strip.

Cache Memory:-

● The Cache Memory is the volatile computer memory.

● It is very close to the CPU, also called CPU memory.
● It is the fastest memory that provides high-speed data access to a computer microprocessor.
Cache Fundamentals:

● Block Line: Minimum amount of information that can be either present or not present in a
cache level.
● Hit: An access where the data requested by the processor is present in the cache.
● Miss: An access where the data requested by the processor is not present in the cache.
● Hit Time: Time to access the cache memory block and return the data to the processor.
● Hit rate/Miss Rate: Fraction of memory access found (not found) in the cache.
● Miss penalty: Time to replace a block in cache with corresponding block from the next level.

Types of Cache memory:

1. Level 1 (L1) cache or Primary Cache -

● The Size of the L1 cache is between 2KB to 64KB.
● It depend on computer processor.
● It is a embedded register in the computer microprocessor(CPU).
● Example of registers are accumulator, address register, Program counter etc.
2. Level 2 (L2) cache or Secondary Cache -
● The Size of the L2 cache is between 256KB to 512KB.
● L2 cache is Located on computer microprocessor.
● The high-speed system bus interconnecting the cache to the microprocessor.
3. Level 3 (L3) cache or Main Memory -
● The L3 cache is is between 1 MB to 8 MB.
● In Multi core processors, each core may have separate L1 and L2,but all core share a
common L3 cache.
● L3 cache’s speed is double than the RAM.

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