PYTHON CODER

PYTHON
PROGRAMMING
MASTERY COURSE

The code is life. Never mess with the code.

MARKETED BY
DGTALGRAM
 PYTHON
LECTURE 1
 Today’s Agenda

An Introduction to Python

• Necessity Of Programming

• What Is Python And Who Created It ?

• What Python Can Do ?

• Why Should I Learn Python In 2018 ?

• Important Features
 Why Do We Need Programming ?

• To communicate with digital machines and make them

work accordingly

• Today in the programming world , we have more than

800 languages available.

• And every language is designed to fulfill a particular

kind of requirement
 Brief History Of Prog. Lang

 C language was primarily designed to develop “System

Softwares” like Operating Systems, Device Drivers etc .

 To remove security problems with “C” language , C++ language

was designed.

 It is an Object Oriented Language which provides data security

and can be used to solve real world problems.

 Many popular softwares like Adobe Acrobat , Winamp Media

Player,Internet Explorer,Mozilla Firefox etc were designed in
C++
Courtsey:http://www.stroustrup.com/applications.html
 What is Python ?

 Python is a general purpose and powerful

programming language.

 Python is considered as one of the most versatile

programming language as it can be used to develop
almost any kind of application including desktop
application , web applications , CAD , Image
processing and many more.
Who created Python ?

 Developed by Guido van

Rossum , a Dutch scientist

 Created at Center For

Mathematics and
Research , Netherland

 It is inspired by another
programming language called
ABC
Why was Python
created ?

 Guido started Python

development as a hobby in
1989

 But since then it has grown to

become one of the most
polished languages of the
computing world.
How Python got
it’s name?

 The name Python is inspired

from Guido’s favorite
Comedy TV show called
“Monty Python’s Flying
Circus”

 Guido wanted a name that was

short, unique, and slightly
mysterious, so he decided to
call the language Python.
Who manages Python
today ?

 From version 2.1 onwards ,

python is managed by Python
Software Foundation
situated in Delaware , USA

 It is a non-profit
organization devoted to the
growth and enhancement of
Python language

 Their website is
http://www.python.org
What Python can do ?

 GUI Application

 Web Application

 Data Analysis

 Machine Learning

 Raspberry Pi

 Game Development
GUI In Python

 Python is used for GUI

apps all the time.

 It has famous libraries

like PyQT , Tkinter to
build desktop apps.
Web Application
In Python

 We can use Python to

create web applications
on many levels of
complexity

 There are many

excellent Python
frameworks like
Django, Pyramid and
Flask for this purpose
Data Analysis In Python

 Python is the leading

language of choice for
many data scientists

 It has grown in
popularity due to it’s
excellent libraries like
Numpy , Pandas etc
Machine Learning
In Python

 Machine learning is
about making
predictions with data

 It is heavily used in Face

recognition , music
recommendation ,
medical data etc

 Python has many

wonderful libraries to
implement ML algos like
SciKit-Learn ,
Tensorflow etc
Raspberry Pi
In Python

 The Raspberry Pi is a
low cost, credit-card
sized computer that
plugs into a computer
monitor or TV, and uses
a standard keyboard
and mouse.

 It can do almost
everything a normal
desktop can do
Raspberry Pi
In Python

 We can build Home

Automation System and
even robots using
Raspberry-Pi

 The coding on a
Raspberry Pi can be
performed using Python
Game Development
In Python

 We can write
whole games in Python
using PyGame.

 Popular games
developed in Python
are:
 Bridge Commander
 Civilization IV
 Battlefield 2
 Eve Online
 Freedom Force
 Why should
I learn Python ?

 4th most popular programming

 Fastest growing language

 Opens lots of doors

 Big corporates prefer Python

 Means , PYTHON IS THE

FUTURE
Who uses Python
today ?
 Features Of Python

 Simple
 Dynamically Typed
 Robust
 Supports multiple programming paradigms
 Compiled as well as Interpreted
 Cross Platform
 Extensible
 Embedded
 Extensive Library
 Simple

 Python is very simple

 As compared to other popular languages like Java and C++,

it is easier to code in Python.

 Python code is comparitively 3 to 5 times smaller than

C/C++/Java code
 Print Hello Bhopal!

IN C
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
printf("Hello Bhopal!");
return 0;
}

IN JAVA
public class HelloWorld{
public static void main( String[] args ) {
System.out.println( "Hello Bhopal!" );
}
}

IN PYTHON
print('Hello Bhopal!')
 Swap 2 Nos

IN C
int a=10,b=20,temp;
temp=a;
a=b;
b=temp;

IN JAVA
int a=10,b=20,temp;
temp=a;
a=b;
b=temp;

IN PYTHON
a,b=10,20
a,b=b,a
 Add 2 Nos

IN C
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int a=10,b=20;
printf(“Sum is %d”,a+b);
return 0;
}
IN JAVA
public class HelloWorld{
public static void main( String[] args ) {
int a=10,b=20;
System.out.println( “Sum is “+(a+b));
}
}
IN PYTHON
a,b=10,20;
print(“Sum is”a+b)
Dynamically Typed
 Dynamically Typed
IN C IN Python
int a;
a=10
a=10;
a=“Bhopal”; a=“Bhopal”
 Robust

 Python has very strict rules which every program must

compulsorily follow and if these rules are violated then Python
terminates the code by generating “Exception”

 To understand python’s robustness , guess the output of the

following /C++ code:

int arr[5];
int i;
for(i=0;i<=9;i++)
{
arr[i]=i+1;
}
 Robust

 In Python if we write the same code then it will generate

Exception terminating the code

 Due to this other running programs on the computer do

not get affected and the system remains safe and secure
 Supports Multiple
Programming Paradigms

 Python supports both procedure-oriented and object-

oriented programming which is one of the key python
features.

 In procedure-oriented languages, the program is built

around procedures or functions which are nothing but
reusable pieces of programs.

 In object-oriented languages, the program is built

around objects which combine data and functionality
 Compiled
As Well As Interpreted

 Python uses both a compiler as well as interpreter for

converting our source and running it

 However , the compilation part is hidden from the

programmer ,so mostly people say it is an interpreted
language
 Cross Platform

 Let’s assume we’ve written a Python code for our

Windows machine.

 Now, if we want to run it on a Mac, we don’t need to make

changes to it for the same.

 In other words, we can take one code and run it on any

machine, there is no need to write different code for
different machines.

 This makes Python a cross platform language

 Extensible

 Python allows us to call C/C++/Java code from a Python

code and thus we say it is an extensible language

 We generally use this feature when we need a critical piece

of code to run very fast .

 So we can code that part of our program in C or C++ and

then use it from our Python program.
 Embedded

 We just saw that we can put code in other languages in our

Python source code.

 However, it is also possible to put our Python code in a

source code in a different language like C++.

 This allows us to integrate Python feature into our program

of the other language.
 Extensive Library

 The Python Standard Library is huge indeed.

 It can help you do various things like Database

Programming , E-mailing ,GUI Programming etc
 PYTHON
LECTURE 2
 Today’s Agenda

Version History , Downloading and Installing

Python

• Version History

• Python 2 v/s Python 3

• Different Python Implementations

• Downloading And Installing Python

• Testing Python Installation

 Python Version History

• First released on Feb-20th -1991 ( ver 0.9.0)

• Python 1.0 launched in Jan-1994

• Python 2.0 launched in Oct-2000

• Python 3.0 launched in Dec-2008

• Python 2.7 launched in July 2010

• Latest version(as of now) is Python 3.6.5

launched on March-28th-2018
 The Two Versions Of Python

• As you can observe from the previous slide , there are 2

major versions of Python , called Python 2 and
Python 3

• Python 3 came in 2008 and it is not backward

compatible with Python 2

• This means that a project which uses Python 2 will not

run on Python 3.

• This means that we have to rewrite the entire

project to migrate it from Python 2 to Python 3
 Some Important Differences

• In Python 2
print “Hello Bhopal”
• In Python 3
print(“Hello Bhopal”)
• In Python 2
5/2 →2
5/2.0→2.5
• In Python 3
5/2→ 2.5

• The way of accepting input has also changed and like

this there are many changes
 The Two Versions Of Python

• So to prevent this overhead of programmers , PSF

decided to support Python 2 also.

• But this support will only be till Jan-1-2020

• You can visit https://pythonclock.org/ to see

exactly how much time is left before Python 2 retires
 Which Version Should I Use ?

• For beginners , it is a point of confusion as to which

Python version they should learn ?

• The obvious answer is Python 3

 Why Python 3 ?

• We should go with Python 3 as it brings lot of new

features and new tricks compared to Python 2

• Moreover as per PSF, Python 2.x is legacy, Python

3.x is the present and future of the language

• All major future upgrades will be to Python 3

and , Python 2.7 will never move ahead to even
Python 2.8
 Various Implementations
Of Python

 The Python language has many popular

implementations

 The word implementation means the environment

which provides support for the execution of programs
written in the Python language.

 As of now Python has more than 20 implementations

, but the most common are: Cpython , Jython ,
IronPython and PyPy
 Difference Between Machine Code
And ByteCode

 Before proceeding further let us understand the

difference between bytecode and machine code(native
code).
 Machine Code(aka native code)

 Machine code is set of instructions that directly gets executed by

the CPU.

 Almost all the high level languages such as C, C++ translate the
source code into executable machine code with the help of
Compilers

 This Machine code is then directly executed by the underlying

Machine ( OS+CPU)
Difference Between Machine Code
And ByteCode
 Benefits And Drawbacks
Of Machine Code

 The benefit of machine code is that it runs very fast

because it is in the native form i.e a form which is
directly understandable to the CPU.

 However the drawback is that it cannot run on another

platform which is different than the platform on which
the code was compiled.

 In simple words , the .exe file of a C program compiled in

Windows cannot run on Linux or Mac because every
platform (OS+CPU) has it’s own machine code
instruction set.
 Benefits And Drawbacks
Of Machine Code

C/C++
Source Code

Turbo
Compiler

Machine
Code Windows Linux
 Difference Between Machine Code
And ByteCode

Bytecode

 Bytecode is an intermediate code but it is different

than machine code because it cannot be directly
executed by the CPU .

 So whenever the compiler of a language which supports

bytecode compiles a program , the compiler never
generates machine code.

 Rather it generates a machine independent code called

the “bytecode”.
 Difference Between Machine Code
And ByteCode

 Now since this bytecode is not directly understandable to

the platform(OS & CPU) , so another special layer of
software is required to convert these bytecode
instructions to machine dependent form .

 This special layer is called VM or Virtual Machine.

 Difference Between Machine Code
And ByteCode

 One such language which works on the concept of VM is

Java.

 Thus any such platform for which a VM (called JVM in

java) is available can be used to execute a Java program
irrespective of where it has been compiled.
 Program Execution
in JAVA

Source Code

Compiler

Byte Code
JVM JVM JVM
MacOS
Windows Ubuntu
 Benefits And Drawbacks
Of ByteCode

 The benefit of bytecode is that it makes our program

platform independent i.e. we only have to write the
program once and we can run it any platform provided
there is a VM available on that platform

 However the drawback is that it runs at a slower

pace because the interpreter inside the VM has to
translate each bytecode instruction to native form and
then send it for execution to the CPU.
 CPython

 The default implementation of the Python programming

language is CPython which is written in C language.

 CPython is the original Python implementation and it

is the implementation we will download
from Python.org.

 People call it CPython to distinguish it from other

Python implementations

 Also we must understand that Python is the language

and CPython is it’s compiler/interpreter written in C
language to run the Python code.
 CPython

 CPython compiles the python source code into

intermediate bytecode, which is executed by the
CPython virtual machine also called as the PVM .
 Jython

 The Jython system (originally known as JPython) is an

alternative implementation of the Python language,
targeted for integration with the Java programming
language.

 Jython compiles Python source code to Java bytecode

and then sends this bytecode to the Java Virtual Machine
(JVM).

 Because Python code is translated to Java byte code, it

looks and feels like a true Java program at runtime.
Jython
 IronPython

 A third implementation of Python, and newer than both

CPython and Jython is IronPython

 IronPython is designed to allow Python programs to

integrate with applications coded to work with
Microsoft’s .NET Framework for Windows.

 Similar to Jython, it uses .Net Virtual Machine which is

called as Common Language Runtime
 PyPy

 PyPy is an implementation of the Python programming

language written in Python.

 It uses a special compiler called JITC (just-in-time

compilation).

 PyPy adds JITC to PVM which makes the PVM more

efficient and fast by converting bytecode into machine
code in much more efficient way than the normal
interpreter.
 Downloading And
Installing Python

 We can use Python in 2 ways:

 Without any IDE , i.e. by simply using notepad for writing

the code and running it on command prompt

 With an IDE like PyCharm , Spyder , Visual Studio Code etc

 Initially we will learn and practice Python programs

without any IDE and later on we will use PYCHARM
 Downloading And
Installing Python

 Python’s downloading and installation is fairly easy and

is almost same as any other software.

 We can download everything we need to get started with

Python from the Python website called
http://www.python.org/downloads.

 The website should automatically detect that we’re using

Windows and present the links to the Windows
installer.
 Downloading And
Installing Python

If you have Windows 32 bit then download the installer by

clicking on the button Download Python 3.6.5
 Downloading And
Installing Python

But if you have windows 64 bit then scroll down and select
python 3.6.5 from the list
 Downloading And
Installing Python

Now go to the Files section and select windows x86-64

executable installer
This will download the installer
 Downloading And
Installing Python

Open the downloads folder and run the file python-3.6.5.exe (if you
are on 32 bit) or python-3.6.5-amd64 (if you are on 64bit) by right
clicking it and selecting run as administrator
 Downloading And
Installing Python

The Python installer will start running . In the window that

appears , do 2 things:
1. Click on the checkbox Add Python 3.6 to PATH
2. Select Install Now
 Downloading And
Installing Python

Once the installation is over you will get SETUP WAS

SUCCESSFUL message
 Testing Python Installation

 To verify that Python is installed and working correctly, do

the following:

 Open the command prompt

 Type the command python --version

 In the output we should see the python version number as

shown in the next slide
 Testing Python Installation

 To verify that Python is installed and working

correctly, do the following:

 Open the command prompt

 Type the command Python –version

 In the output we should see the python version

number
 PYTHON
LECTURE 3
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

1. What is the correct syntax of print statement in

Python 2.x ?

A. print
B. print()
C. Print()
D. Print

Correct Answer: A
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

2. What is the correct syntax of print function in

Python 3.x ?

A. print
B. print()
C. Print()
D. Print

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

3. Python is case sensitive

A. False
B. True

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

4. Python is a compiled language or interpreted

language ?

A. Compiled Language
B. Interpreted Language
C. Both
D. None Of The Above

Correct Answer: C
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

5. A Python code is normally smaller than the

corresponding C language code

A. True
B. False

Correct Answer: A
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

6. A Python code runs faster than the corresponding C

language code

A. True
B. False

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

7. What kind of code Python compiler produces ?

A. Machine Code
B. Secret Code
C. Source Code
D. Byte Code

Correct Answer: D
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

8. What is CPython ?

A. A Python Library
B. Name Of Python Framework
C. A Python language Implementation
D. None Of The Above

Correct Answer: C
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

9. In CPython , the bytecode is converted to machine

instruction set by

A. PVM
B. VM
C. JVM
D. Bytecode Converter

Correct Answer: A
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

10.Python 3 is backward compatible with Python 2

A. True
B. False

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

11. Support for Python 2 will end on

A. 31-Jan-2019
B. 1-Jan-2020
C. 31-Dec-2018
D. 31-Dec-2019

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

12. Arrange the following in descending order of speed

of execution

A. CPython , PyPy, C
B. PyPy, C, CPython
C. CPython , C, PyPy
D. C,PyPy,CPython

Correct Answer: D
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

13. Which implementation of Python contains JITC ?

A. CPython
B. PyPy
C. Jython
D. IronPython

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

14. What is the output of 10/4 in Python 3?

A. 2.0
B. 2.5
C. 2
D. None Of The Above

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

15. What is the output of print “Python Rocks” in

Python 3 ?

A. Python Rocks
B. Python
C. Syntax Error
D. None Of The Above

Correct Answer: C
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

16. Which of the following is not a Python IDE ?

A. PyCharm
B. Cutie Pie
C. Spyder
D. Visual Studio Code

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

17. What is NumPy?

A. A library of Python for working with large and

multidimensional arrays
B. A library of Python for Artificial Intelligence
C. A Python IDE
D. None of the above

Correct Answer: A
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

18. Python is a statically typed language

A. True
B. False

Correct Answer: B
 Today’s Agenda

Developing First Python Code

• What Is Python Shell ?

• Using Python Shell

• Writing Python Code Using Notepad

• Running Python Code

• How To View The Bytecode File ?

 Two Ways Of Interacting
With Python

• In the last chapter, we have installed Python.

• Now let’s start using it

• We can use Python in two modes:

• Interactive Mode

• Script Mode
 Two Ways Of Interacting
With Python

• In Interactive Mode, Python waits for us to enter

command.

• When we type the command, Python interpreter goes

ahead and executes the command, and then it waits
again for our next command.

• In Script mode, Python interpreter runs a program

from the source file.
 The Interactive Mode

• Python interpreter in interactive mode is

commonly known as Python Shell.

• To start the Python Shell enter the following

command in the command prompt:
• python

• Doing this will activate the Python Shell and now we

can use it for running python statements or commands
The Interactive Mode
 The Interactive Mode

• What we have seen on the previous slide is called

Python Shell.

• >>> is known as python prompt or prompt string,

and it simply means that Python Shell is ready to
accept our commands.

• Python Shell allows us to type Python code and see

the result immediately.
 The Interactive Mode

• In technical jargon this is also known as REPL which

stands for Read-Eval-Print-Loop.

• Whenever we hear REPL we should think of an

environment which allows us to quickly test code
snippets and see results immediately, just like a
Calculator.

• Some examples of commands / code snippets to be run

on shell are shown in the next slide
The Interactive Mode
 The Interactive Mode

• Not only mathematical calculations , we also can run

some basic python commands on Python Shell

• For example: Type the following command:

• print(“Hello Bhopal”)

• And you will get the text displayed on the Shell

 The Interactive Mode

• We must remember that Python is also a case sensitive

language like C or C++ .

• So the function names must appear in lower case ,

otherwise Python generates Syntax Error , as shown
below
 Getting Help From Shell

• We can also use help on Shell for getting information

on Python topics.

• To do this we need to type help( ) on the prompt string

on the Shell
 Getting Help From Shell

• Now we get help on various Python topics .

• For example to get a list of all the available keywords in

Python , we can write the command “keywords”
 Quitting Help

• To come out of help mode , we just have to strike

ENTER key on the prompt
 Quitting Shell

• To come out of Python Shell , we have to type the

command exit( ) or quit( ) on the prompt string
 The Script Mode

 Python Shell is great for testing small chunks of code

but there is one problem - the statements we enter in the
Python shell are not saved anywhere.

 So if we want to execute same set of statements multiple

times we will have to write them multiple times which is
a difficult task.

 In this case it is better to write the code in a File , Save

it and then Run it

 This is called Script Mode

 The Script Mode

 In this mode we take following steps for developing

and running a Python code:

 Write the source code

 Compile it ( Generation of bytecode )

 Run it ( Execution of the bytecode )

 As discussed previously , step 2 is hidden from the

programmer and is internally performed by Python
itself , so we just have to perform step 1 and step 3
 The Script Mode

 For this do the following:

 Create a directory by any name at any location . I am creating

it by the name of “My Python Codes” in D:\ drive .

 Open notepad and type the code as shown in the next slide in
the file.
 The Script Mode

print("Hello User")
print("Python Rocks")
 The Script Mode

 Now save this file by the name firstcode.py in the folder

“My Python Codes” in D:\ drive .

 Remember the file can have any name but the extension must
compulsorily be .py

 Now open the command prompt , move to the folder My

Python Codes and type the following command:

 python firstcode.py

 Here “python” is the name of Python’s interpreter which will

run the program firstcode.py
The Script Mode
 What Happened
In Background?

• When a Python program executes, a bytecode

compiler translates source code into bytecode.

• This bytecode is stored in RAM and not visible to us.

• After the bytecode is produced, it is then processed by

the PVM (Python Virtual Machine a.k.a Python
Runtime or Python interpreter).

• So the Python compiler produces bytecode in bulk

while the Python interpreter inside PVM performs
line-by-line execution of the bytecode.
 What Happened
In Background?

• So in our case the following sequence of events will take

place:
1. Programmer writes the source code by the name
firstcode.py
2. Then he/she runs the program using the command:
python firstcode.py
3. The Python compiler internally generates the bytecode file
called as firstcode.pyc
4. Then the Python interpreter gets invoked and it reads this
bytecode file and converts each bytecode instruction to
the underlying operating system’s instruction set and sends it
for execution to the CPU
5. Finally the programmer then sees the output
What Happened
In Background?
 Can We See The Bytecode File ?

• Yes, we can force Python to save the bytecode file for

us so that we view it.

• To do this we need to write the following command

python –m py_compile firstcode.py

• In the above command , we are using the switch –m ,

which is called Module.

• Module in Python are just like header files of

C/C++ language as it contains functions ,classes and
global variables
 Can We See The Bytecode File ?

• The module name in this command is py_compile

and it generates .pyc file for the .py file.

• Now the Python compiler creates a separate folder

called __pycache__ for storing this bytecode file

• The name of the bytecode file is based on the Python

implementation we are using

• Since we are using Cpython , so in our case the file

name will be firstcode.cpython-36.pyc
 Can We See The Bytecode File ?

• After we have created the .pyc file , the next step is to

interpret it using Python interpreter

• The command for this will be:

python __pycache__\firstcode.cpython-36.pyc

• When we will run the above command the Python

interpreter inside PVM will be invoked and will run
the bytecode instructions inside the
firstcode.cpython-36.pyc file
Can We See The Bytecode File ?
 PYTHON
LECTURE 4
 Today’s Agenda

More About print() , IDLE, Error, Identifiers,

Reserved Words

• Introduction To Predefined Functions And Modules

• How print() function works ?

• How To Remove Newline From print( ) ?

• Introduction TO IDLE

• Types Of Errors In Python

• Rules For Identifiers

• Python Reserved Words

 Types Of Predefined Function
Provided By Python

• Python has a very rich set of predefined functions and

they are broadly categorized to be of 2 types

• Built In Functions

• Functions Defined In Modules

 Built In Functions

• Built in functions are those functions which are

always available for use .

• For example , print() is a built-in function which

prints the given object to the standard output device
(screen)

• As of version 3.6 , Python has 68 built-in function

and their list can be obtained on the following url :
https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html
 What Is print( ) And
How It Is Made Available
To Our Program ?
 How To Remove
newline From print() ?

 Let us revisit our firstcode.py file . The code was

print("Hello User")
print("Python Rocks")
 How To Remove
newline From print() ?

 If we closely observe , we will see that the 2 messages are

getting displayed on separate lines , even though we have
not used any newline character.

 This is because the function print() automatically

appends a newline character after the message it is
printing.
 How To Remove
newline From print() ?

 If we do not want this then we can use the print()

function as shown below:
print(“Hello User”,end=“”)
print(“Python Rocks”)
 How To Remove
newline From print() ?

 The word end is called keyword argument in Python

and it’s default value is “\n”.

 But we have changed it to empty string(“”) to tell

Python not to produce any newline.

 Similarly we can set it to “\t” to generate tab or “\b” to

erase the previous character
 Some Examples

1.
print("Hello User",end="\t")
print("Python Rocks")

2.
print("Hello User",end="\b")
print("Python Rocks")
 Functions Defined
In Modules

 A Module in Python is collection of functions and

statements which provide some extra functionality as
compared to built in functions.

 We can assume it just like a header file of C/C++

language.

 Python has 100s of built in Modules like math , sys ,

platform etc which prove to be very useful for a
programmer
 Functions Defined
In Modules

 For example , the module math contains a function

called factorial( ) which can calculate and return the
factorial of any number.

 But to use a module we must first import it in our code

using the syntax :
 import <name of the module>
 For example: import math

 Then we can call any function of this module by prefixing

it with the module name

 For example: math.factorial(5)

Functions Defined
In Modules
 Introducing IDLE

 When we install CPython , along with other tools we

also get a lightweight Integrated Development
Environment or IDLE for short.

 The IDLE is a GUI based IDE for editing and

running Python programs

 IDLE has two main window types, the Shell window

and the Editor window.

 Shell window is same as command shell and Editor

window is same as notepad but both have colorizing of
code , input, output, and error messages.
 Introducing IDLE

 To start IDLE on Windows click the Start Menu and

search "IDLE" or "idle".

 Right Click IDLE as select Run as administrator and

you will see a window as shown in the next slide
Opening IDLE
 Using IDLE

 This is again Python Shell, but a much more colourful

as compared to the previous Shell window

 Just type the commands, hit enter and it will display the
result.
Using IDLE
 Using IDLE’s Editor Window

 IDLE also has a built-in text editor to write Python

programs.

 To create a new program go to File > New File.

 A new Untitled window will open. This window is a text

editor where we can write programs.
Using IDLE’s Editor Window
 Using IDLE’s Editor Window

 Save the file as sample.py and to run the program, Go to

Run > Run Module or Hit F5.
 Using IDLE’s Editor Window

 By doing this the editor window will move into the

background, Python Shell will become active and we
will see the output
 Types Of Errors
In Python

• Just like any other programming language , Python

also has 2 kinds of errors:

• Syntax Error

• Runtime Error
 Syntax Error

• Syntaxes are RULES OF A LANGUAGE and when

we break these rules , the error which occurs is called
Syntax Error.

• Examples of Syntax Errors are:

• Misspelled keywords.
• Incorrect use of an operator.
• Omitting parentheses in a function call.
Examples Of Syntax Error
 RunTime Errors
(Exceptions)

• As the name says, Runtime Errors are errors which

occur while the program is running.

• As soon as Python interpreter encounters them it halts

the execution of the program and displays a message
about the probable cause of the problem.
 RunTime Errors
(Exceptions)

• They usually occurs when interpreter counters a

operation that is impossible to carry out and one such
operation is dividing a number by 0.

• Since dividing a number by 0 is undefined , so ,when

the interpreter encounters this operation it
raises ZeroDivisionError as follows:
Example Of RunTime Error
 Rules For Identifiers

• What is an identifier ?
• Identifier is the name given to entities like class, functions,
variables , modules and any other object in Python.

• Rules for identifiers:

• Identifiers can be a combination of letters in lowercase (a to z)
or uppercase (A to Z) or digits (0 to 9) or an underscore (_)

• No special character except underscore is allowed in the name

of a variable
 Rules For Identifiers

• It must compulsorily begin with a underscore ( _ ) or a letter

and not with a digit . Although after the first letter we can have
as many digits as we want. So 1a is invalid , while a1 or _a or
_1 is a valid name for an identifier.
 Rules For Identifiers

• Identifiers are case sensitive , so pi and Pi are two different

identifiers.
 Rules For Identifiers

• Keywords cannot be used as identifiers

• Identifier can be of any length.

 Rules For Reserved Words

• What is a Reserved Word?

• A word in a programming language which has a fixed meaning
and cannot be redefined by the programmer or used as
identifiers

• How many reserved words are there in Python ?

• Python contains 33 reserved words or keywords

• The list is mentioned on the next slide

• We can get this list by using help() in Python Shell

 Rules For Reserved Words

These 33 keywords are: Some Important Observations:

False , True , None ,def,
del ,import ,return , 1. Except False , True and None all
and , or , not , the other keywords are in lowercase
if, else , elif ,
for , while , break ,continue, 2. We don’t have else if in Python ,
is , as , in , rather it is elif
global , nonlocal ,yield ,
try ,except , finally, raise, 3. There are no switch and do-while
statements in Python
lambda ,with ,assert ,
class ,from , pass
 PYTHON
LECTURE 5
 Today’s Agenda

Data Types

• Basic Data Types In Python

• Some Very Important Points To Remember

• Numeric Types

• Different Types Of Integers

• Converting Between Int Types

 Basic Data Types In Python

• Although a programmer is not allowed to

mention the data type while creating variables in his
program in Python , but Python internally allots
different data types to variables depending on their
declaration style and values.

• Overall Python has 14 data types and these are

classified into 6 categories.
 Basic Data Types In Python

• These categories are:

• Numeric Types
• Boolean Type
• Sequence Types
• Set Types
• Mapping Type
• None Type

• Given on the next slide are the names of actual data

types belonging to the above mentioned categories
 Basic Data Types In Python

Numeric Boolean Sequence Set Mapping None Type

Type Type Type Type Type

int bool str set dict NoneType

float list frozenset

complex bytes

bytearray

tuple

range
 Some Very Important Points

• Before we explore more about these data types , let us

understand following important points regarding
Python’s data types:

1. DATA TYPES IN PYTHON ARE DYNAMIC

2. SIZE OF THE DATA TYPE IS ALSO

DYNAMICALLY MANAGED

3. DATA TYPES ARE UNBOUNDED

 Some Very Important Points

1. DATA TYPES IN PYTHON ARE DYNAMIC

• The term dynamic means that we can assign different

values to the same variable at different points of time.

• Python will dynamically change the type of variable as

per the value given.
Some Very Important Points

type() is a built –in

function and it
returns the data
type of the variable

Another important
observation we can
make is that in Python
all the data types are
implementted as
classes and all
variables are object
 Some Very Important Points

2. SIZE OF THE DATA TYPE IS ALSO DYNAMICALLY

MANAGED

• In Python the size of data types is dynamically

managed

• Like C/C++/Java language , variables in Python are not

of fixed size.

• Python makes them as big as required on demand

• There is no question of how much memory a variable uses in

Python because this memory increases as per the
value being assigned
 Some Very Important Points

• Python starts with initial size for a variable and then

increases its size as needed up to the RAM limit

• This initial size for int is 24 bytes and then increases

as the value is increased

• If we want to check the size of a variable , then Python

provides us a function called getsizeof() .

• This function is available in a module called sys

Some Very Important Points
 Some Very Important Points

3. DATA TYPES ARE UNBOUNDED

• Third important rule to remember is that , in Python

data types like integers don’t have any range i.e. they
are unbounded

• Like C /C++ /Java they don’t have max or min

value

• So an int variable can store as many digits as we

want.
 Numeric Types In Python

 As previously mentioned , Python supports 3 numeric

types:

 int: Used for storing integer numbers without any

fractional part
 float: Used for storing fractional numbers
 complex: Used for storing complex numbers
 Numeric Types In Python

 EXAMPLES OF int TYPE:

a=10
b=256
c=-4
print(a)
print(b)
print(c)
Output:
10
256
-4
 Numeric Types In Python

 DIFFERENT WAYS OF REPRESENTING int IN PYTHON:

1. As decimal number( base 10)

2. As binary number( base 2)

3. As octal number(base 8)

4. As hexadecimal number( base 16)

 Numeric Types In Python

 REPRESENTING int AS DECIMAL( base 10) :

1. This is the default way of representing integers

2. The term base 10 means , 10 digits from 0 to 9 are

allowed

3. Example:
a=25
 Numeric Types In Python

 REPRESENTING int AS BINARY( base 2) :

1. We can represent numeric values as binary values also

2. The term base 2 means , only 2 digits from 0 and 1 are

allowed

3. But we need to prefix the number with 0b or 0B , otherwise

Python will take it to be a decimal number
Numeric Types In Python
 Some Very Important
Observation

1. For representing binary value it is compulsory to prefix

the number with 0b or 0B.

2. Although we can assign binary value to the variable but

when we display it we always get output in decimal
number system form.
 Some Very Important
Observation

3. We cannot provide any other digit except 0 and 1 while

giving binary value , otherwise Python will generate
syntax error.
 Some Very Important
Observation

4. We can provide negative values in binary number system

also by prefixing 0b with - .
 Numeric Types In Python

 REPRESENTING int AS OCTAL( base 8) :

1. We can represent numeric values as octal values also

2. The term base 8 means , only 8 digits from 0 to 7 are allowed

3. But we need to prefix the number with zero followed by

small o or capital O i.e. either 0o or 0O , otherwise
Python will take it to be a decimal number
 Numeric Types In Python

4. We cannot provide any other digit except 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ,

5 , 6 and 7 while giving octal value , otherwise Python
will generate syntax error.
 Numeric Types In Python

5. Just like binary number system , we can provide

negative values in octal number system also by
prefixing 0O with -
 Numeric Types In Python

 REPRESENTING int AS HEXADECIMAL( base 16) :

1. We can represent numeric values as hexadecimal values

also

2. The term base 16 means , only 16 digits from 0 to 9 , a to f

and A to F are allowed

3. But we need to prefix the number with zero followed by

small x or capital X i.e. either 0x or 0X , otherwise Python
will take it to be a decimal number
 Numeric Types In Python

4. We cannot provide any other value except the digits and

characters from A to F while giving hexadecimal value
, otherwise Python will generate syntax error.
 Numeric Types In Python

5. Just like other number systems , we can provide negative

values in hexadecimal number system also by
prefixing 0x with -
 Base Conversion Functions

 We know that Python allows us to represent integer

values in 4 different forms like int , binary , octal and
hexadecimal

 Moreover it also allows us to convert one base type to

another base type with the help of certain functions.

 These functions are:

 bin()
 oct()
 hex()
 The bin( ) Function

 The bin() function converts and returns the binary

equivalent of a given integer.

 Syntax : bin(a)

 Parameters : a : an integer to convert . This value can

be of type decimal , octal or hexadecimal

 Return Value : A string representing binary value

 The bin( ) Function

 Some Examples:
1. Converting decimal base to binary

2. Converting octal base to binary

 The bin( ) Function

 Some Examples:

3. Converting hexadecimal base to binary

4. Error if the value passed is not an integer

 The oct( ) Function

 The oct() function converts and returns the octal

equivalent of a given integer.

 Syntax : oct(a)

 Parameters : a : an integer to convert . This value can

be of type decimal , binary or hexadecimal

 Return Value : A string representing octal value

 The oct( ) Function

 Some Examples:
1. Converting decimal base to octal

2. Converting binary base to octal

 The oct( ) Function

 Some Examples:

3. Converting hexadecimal base to octal

4. Error if the value passed is not an integer

 The hex( ) Function

 The hex() function converts and returns the hexadecimal

equivalent of a given integer.

 Syntax : hex(a)

 Parameters : a : an integer to convert . This value can

be of type decimal , octal or bin

 Return Value : A string representing hexadecimal value

 The hex( ) Function

 Some Examples:
1. Converting decimal base to hexadecimal

2. Converting binary base to hexadecimal

 The hex ( ) Function

 Some Examples:

3. Converting octal base to hexadecimal

4. Error if the value passed is not an integer

 PYTHON
LECTURE 6
 Today’s Agenda

More On Data Types

• The float Type

• The complex Type

• The bool Type

• The str Type

 The float Data Type

• Python also supports floating-point real values.

• Float values are specified with a decimal point

• So 2.5 , 3.14 , 6.9 etc are all examples of float data

type

• Just like double data type of other languages like

Java/C , float in Python has a precision of 16 digits
Some Examples
 Some Important Points
About float

• For float , we can only assign values in decimal

number system and not in binary , octal or
hexadecimal number system.
 Some Important Points
About float

• Float values can also be represented as exponential

values

• Exponential notation is a scientific notation which is

represented using e or E followed by an integer and it
means to the power of 10
 The complex Data Type

• Complex numbers are written in the form, x + yj,

where x is the real part and y is the imaginary part.

• For example: 4+3j , 12+1j etc

• The letter j is called unit imaginary number.

• It denotes the value of √-1 , i.e j² denotes -1

An Example
 Some Important Points
About complex Data Type

• For representing the unit imaginary number we are

only allowed to use the letter j (both upper and
lower case are allowed).

• Any other letter if used will generate error

 Some Important Points
About complex Data Type

• The letter j , should only appear in suffix , not in prefix

 Some Important Points
About complex Data Type

• The real and imaginary parts are allowed to be

integers as well as floats
 Some Important Points
About complex Data Type

• The real part can be specified in any int form i.e.

decimal , binary , octal or hexadecimal but the
imaginary part should only be in decimal form
 Some Important Points
About complex Data Type

• We can display real and imaginary part separately by

using the attributes of complex types called “real” and
“imag”.

• Don’t think real and imag are functions , rather they

are attributes/properties of complex data type
 The bool Data Type

• In Python , to represent boolean values we have bool

data type.

• The bool data type can be one of two values,

either True or False.

• We use Booleans in programming to make comparisons

and to control the flow of the program.
Some Examples
 Some Important Points
About bool

• True and False are keywords , so case sensitivity

must be remembered while assigning them otherwise
Python will give error
 Some Important Points
About bool

• All test conditions in Python return the result as bool

which could be either True or False
 Some Important Points
About bool

• To understand the next point , try to guess the output of

the following:
a=True a=True a=False
b=False b=True b=False
c=a+b c=a+b
c=a+b
print(c) print(c)
print(c) Output: Output:
Output: 2 0
1

The above outputs make it clear that internally Python

stores True and False as integers with the value 1 and 0
respectively
 The str Data Type

• Just like any other language , in Python also a

String is sequence of characters.

• Python does not have a char data type, unlike

C/C++ or Java

• We can use single quotes or double quotes to

represent strings.

• However Python recommends to use single quotes

 Some Examples

The data type used by Python internally for storing Strings is

str
 Some Important Points
About Strings

• Unlike C language , Python does not uses ASCII

number system for characters . It uses UNICODE
number system

• UNICODE is a number system which supports much

wider range of characters compared to ASCII

• As far as Python is concerned , it uses UNICODE to

support 65536 characters with their numeric values
ranging from 0 to 65535 which covers almost every
spoken language in the world like English , Greek ,
Spanish , Chinese , Japanese etc
Some Important Points
About Strings
 Some Important Points
About Strings

• Whenever we display a string value directly on

Python’s shell i.e. without using the function print(),
Python’s shell automatically encloses it in single
quotes

• However this does not happen when we use print()

function to print a string value
 Some Important Points
About Strings

• If a string starts with double quotes , it must end with

double quotes only .

• Similarly if it starts with single quotes , it must end

with single quotes only.

• Otherwise Python will generate error

Some Important Points
About Strings
 Some Important Points
About Strings

• If the string contains single quotes in between then it

must be enclosed in double quotes and vice versa.

• For example:

• To print Sachin's Python Classes , we would write:

• msg= " Sachin's Python Classes "

• Similarly to print Capital of "MP" is "Bhopal" ,we

would write:

• msg='Capital of "MP" is "Bhopal" '

Some Important Points
About Strings
 Some Important Points
About Strings

• How will you print Let's learn "Python" ?

A. "Let's learn "Python" "

B. 'Let's learn "Python" '

NONE!
Both will give error.
Correct way is to use either triple single quotes or triple
double quotes or escape sequence character \
msg=' ' 'Let\'s learn "Python" ' ' '
OR
msg='Let\'s learn "Python" '
Some Important Points
About Strings
Some Important Points
About Strings
 Some Important Points
About Strings

• Another important use of triple single quotes or

triple double quotes is that if our string extends up
to more than 1 line then we need to enclose it in triple
single quotes or triple double quotes
 Some Important Points
About Strings

• We also can do the same thing by using \n , so using

triple quotes or triple double quotes is just for
improving readability
 Accessing Individual Characters
In String

 In Python, Strings are stored as individual

characters in a contiguous memory location.

 Each character in this memory location is assigned

an index which begins from 0 and goes up to
length -1
 Accessing Individual Characters
In String

 For example, suppose we write

word=“Python”

 Then the internal representation of this will be

 Accessing Individual Characters
In String

 Now to access individual character we can provide

this index number to the subscript operator [ ].
 Accessing Individual Characters
In String

 However if we try to provide an index number

beyond the given limit then IndexError exception
will arise
 Accessing Individual Characters
In String

 Not only this , Python even allows negative indexing

which begins from the end of the string.

 So -1 is the index of last character , -2 is the index of

second last character and so on.
Accessing Individual Characters
In String
 PYTHON
LECTURE 7
 Today’s Agenda

• Concatenating Strings

• The Slice Operator In Strings

• Three Important String Functions

• Type Conversion
 String Concatenation

• Concatenation means joining two or more strings

together

• To concatenate strings, we use the + operator.

• Keep in mind that when we work with numbers, + will

be an operator for addition, but when used with strings
it is a joining operator.
 String Concatenation

• Example: • Example:
s1=“Good”
s1=“Good”
s2=“Morning”
s2=“Morning” s3=s1+” “+s2
s3=s1+s2 print(s3)
print(s3)

• Output:
• Output: Good Morning
GoodMorning
 The Slicing Operator

• Slicing means pulling out a sequence of characters from

a string .

• For example , if we have a string “Industry” and we

want to extract the word “dust” from it , then in
Python this is done using slicing.

• To slice a string , we use the operator[ ] as follows:

• Syntax: s[x:y]
• x denotes the start index of slicing and y denotes the end
index . But Python ends slicing at y-1 index.
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

s=“Industry” s=“Welcome”
print(s[2:6]) print(s[3:6])

• Output: • Output:
dust com
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

s=“Mumbai” s=“Mumbai”
print(s[0:3]) print(s[0:10])

• Output: • Output:
Mum Mumbai
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

s=“Python” s=“Python”
print(s[2:2]) print(s[6:10])

• Output: • Output:
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

s=“welcome” s=“welcome”
print(s[1:]) print(s[:3])

• Output: • Output:
elcome wel
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

s=“welcome” s=“welcome”
print(s[:]) print(s[])

• Output: • Output:
welcome Syntax Error
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

s=“welcome” s=“welcome”
print(s[-4:-1]) print(s[-1:-4])

• Output: • Output:
com
 Using Step Value

• String slicing can accept a third parameter also after the

two index numbers.

• The third parameter is called step value.

• So the complete syntax of slicing operator is:

s[begin:end:step]

• Step value indicates how many characters to move forward

after the first character is retrieved from the string and it’s
default value is 1 , but can be changed as per our choice.
 The Slicing Operator

• For Example: s=“Industry”

print(s[2:6:2])
s=“Industry”
print(s[2:6])

• Output: • Output:
dust ds

• Can also be
written as :

s=“Industry”
print(s[2:6:1])

• Output:
dust
 Three Very Useful Functions
Of String Data Type

• Python provides us some very useful methods for

performing various operations on String values.

• Following are these methods:

• len()

• lower()

• upper()
 Three Very Useful Functions
Of String Data Type

• len() : Returns length of the String passed as argument

• Syntax: len(s)

• lower() : Returns a copy of calling String object with all letters

converted to lowercase
• Syntax: s.lower()
 Three Very Useful Functions
Of String Data Type

• upper() : Returns a copy of calling String object with all letters

converted to uppercase

• Syntax: s.upper()
 Comparing Strings

 We can use ( > , < , <= , <= , == , != ) to compare two

strings.

 Python compares string lexicographically i.e using

UNICODE value of the characters.
 Comparing Strings

 Suppose we have str1 as " Indore " and str2 as " India" and
we write print(str1>str2) , then Python will print True.
Following is the explanation

 Now the first two characters from str1 and str2 ( I and I ) are
compared.

 As they are equal, the second two characters are compared.

 Because they are also equal, the third two characters ( d and d ) are
compared.

 Since they also are equal , the fourth pair (o and i) is compared and
there we get a mismatch .

 Now because o has a greater UNICODE value than i so Indore is

greater than India and so the answer is True
Comparing Strings
 Type Conversion

 The process of converting the value of one data type

(integer, string, float, etc.) to another data type is called
Type Conversion.

 Python has two types of type conversion.

 Implicit Type Conversion

 Explicit Type Conversion

 Implicit Conversion

 In Implicit Type Conversion, Python automatically

converts one data type to another data type.

 This process doesn't need any programmer involvement.

 Let's see an example where Python promotes conversion

of int to float .
 Example Of
Implicit Conversion

• If we observe the above operations , we will find that

Python has automatically assigned the data type of c to be
float .

• This is because Python always converts smaller data type

to larger data type to avoid the loss of data.
 Another Example

• Here also Python is automatically upgrading bool to

type int so as to make the result sensible
 Explicit Type Conversion

• There are some cases , where Python will not perform

type conversion automatically and we will have to
explicitly convert one type to another.

• Such Type Conversions are called Explicit Type

Conversion

• Let's see an example of this

 Explicit Type Conversion

Guess the output ?

a=10 Why did the code fail?
b=“6”
print(type(a)) The code failed because
print(type(b)) Python does not automatically convert
c=a+b String to int.
print( c )
print(type( c )) To handle such cases we need to
perform Explicit Type Conversion
Output:
<class ‘int’>
<class ‘str’>
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'str'
 Explicit Type Conversion
Functions In Python

• Python provides us 5 predefined functions for

performing Explicit Type Conversion for
fundamental data types.

• These functions are :

1. int()
2. float()
3. complex()
4. bool()
5. str()
 The int( ) Function

• Syntax: int(value)

• This function converts any data type to integer ,

with some special cases

• It returns an integer object converted from the given

value
 int( ) Examples

int(2.3)
Output: int() cannot
convert complex
2 type to int type
int(3+4j)
Output:
TypeError: Can’t convert complex to int
int(False)
Output:
0
int(True)
Output:
1
 int( ) Examples

int(“25”) int() cannot accept

Output: float values as
string . It only
25 accept strings with
int(“2.5”) base 10 only
Output:
ValueError: Invalid literal for int()
int(“1010”) int() cannot accept
Output: binary values as
string . It only
1010 accept strings with
int(“0b1010”) base 10 only

Output:
ValueError: Invalid literal for int()
 The float( ) Function

• Syntax: float(value)

• This function converts any data type to float , with

some special cases

• It returns an float object converted from the given

value
 float( ) Examples

float(25)
Output: float() cannot
convert complex
25.0 type to float type
float(3+4j)
Output:
TypeError: Can’t convert complex to float
float(False)
Output:
0.0
float(True)
Output:
1.0
 float( ) Examples

float(“25”)
float(“twenty”)
Output: Output:
25.0 ValueError:Could not convert
float(“2.5”) string to float
Output:
2.5
float(“1010”) float() cannot
Output: accept binary
values as string . It
1010.0 only accept strings
float (“0b1010”) with base 10 only

Output:
ValueError:Could not convert string to float
 The complex( ) Function

• Syntax: complex(value)

• This function converts any data type to complex ,

with some special cases

• It returns an complex object converted from the given

value
 complex ( ) Examples

complex(25)
Output:
(25+0j)
complex(2.5)
Output:
(2.5+0j)
complex(True)
Output:
(1+0j)
complex(False)
Output:
0j
 complex( ) Examples

complex(“25”)
complex(“twenty”)
Output: Output:
(25+0j) ValueError: complex() arg is
complex(“2.5”) a malformed string
Output:
(2.5+0j)
complex(“1010”) complex() cannot
Output: accept binary
values as string . It
(1010+0j) only accept strings
complex (“0b1010”) with base 10 only

Output:
ValueError: complex() arg is a malformed string
 The bool ( ) Function

• Syntax: bool(value)

• This function converts any data type to bool , using

the standard truth testing procedure.

• It returns an bool object converted from the given

value
 The bool ( ) Function

• What values are considered to be false and what

values are true ?

• The following values are considered false in Python:

 None
 False
 Zero of any numeric type. For example, 0, 0.0, 0j
 Empty sequence. For example: (), [], ''.
 Empty mapping. For example: {}

• All other values are true

 bool( ) Examples

bool(1)
Output:
True
bool(5)
Output:
True
bool(0)
Output:
False
bool(0.0)
Output:
False
 bool( ) Examples

bool(0.1)
Output:
True
bool(0b101)
Output:
True
bool(0b0000) bool() returns True
Output: if any of the real or
imaginary part is
False non zero . If both
bool(2+3j) are zero it returns
False
Output:
True
 bool( ) Examples

bool(0+1j) bool(“twenty”)
Output: Output:
True True
bool(0+0j) bool(' ')
Output: Output:
True
False
bool('')
Output: bool() returns
False for empty
False Strings otherwise it
bool('A') returns True
Output:
True
 PYTHON
LECTURE 8
 Today’s Agenda

• Variables And Memory Management

• How Variables In Python Are Different Than Other Languages
?

• Immutable And Mutable

• Python’s Memory Management

• The id( ) Function

• The is Operator
 Understanding Python
Variables

• A variable can be seen as a container to store certain

values.

• While the program is running, variables are accessed

and sometimes changed, i.e. a new value will be
assigned to a variable
 How Variables
Work In C ?

• In C language when we declare a variable and

assign value to it then some space is created in
memory by the given name and the given value is
stored in it.

• Suppose we write the statement int a=42; , then the

following will be the memory diagram.
 How Variables
Work In C ?

• Now if we declare another variable , with the same

value , then again the same process will take place.
• Suppose we write , int b=42;
 How Variables
Work In C ?

• Finally if we assign a new value to an existing variable ,

then it’s previous value gets overwritten
• Suppose we write , a=43;
 How Variables
Work In Python ?

• In Python when we assign value to a variable , then

things are different than C .

• Suppose we write a=42 in Python , then Python will

create 2 things:

• An object in heap memory holding the value 42 , and

• A reference called a which will point to this object

 How Variables
Work In Python ?
 How Variables
Work In Python ?

• Now if we create another variable called b and assign it

the same value , then Python will do the following:

• Create a new reference by the name b

• Assign the address of the previously created object to

the reference b because the value is same

• So now both a and b are pointing to the same object

 How Variables
Work In Python ?
 How Variables
Work In Python ?

• Finally if we assign a new value to the variable a , then

like C , Python will not overwrite the value . Rather it
will do the following:

• Create a new object initialized with the new value

• Assign the address of the newly created object to the

reference a

• However the reference b is still pointing to the same

object
 How Variables
Work In Python ?
 How Variables
Work In Python ?

• This behaviour of objects in Python is called

“immutability”

• In other words when we cannot change the value of an

object , we say it is immutable , otherwise we say it
is mutable

• Objects of built-in types like (int, float, bool, str,

complex , tuple) are immutable.

• Objects of built-in types like (list, set, dict) are

mutable.
 Strings Are Also Immutable

• String objects in Python are also immutable.

• That is , once we have created a String object , then we

cannot overwrite it’s value.

• Although we can change the value of the String

reference by assigning it new String.
Strings Are Also Immutable
 Immutable And Mutable

• Following data types in Python are immutable:

• int
• float
• bool
• str
• tuple
• complex
• range
• frozenset
• bytes
• Following data types in Python are mutable:
• list
• dict
• set
• bytearray
 Two Very Important
Questions

• Keeping in mind the concept of immutability , 2 very

common questions arise :

• What is the benefit of making objects

immutable ?
&
• If we have a single reference and we create
multiple objects , then wouldn’t there be
memory wastage ?
 Qn 1 : Benefit Of Immutability

• The main benefit of immutability is that , it

prevents unnecessary creation of new objects .

• This is because if we write , the following 2 statements:

a=42
b=42

• Then Python will not create 2 objects . Rather it only

creates 1 object and makes both the references a and b
,refer to the same object.

• This saves memory and overhead of creating multiple

objects
 Qn 2 : What About Single
Reference And Multiple Objects ?

• Consider the following 3 lines :

a=10
a=20
a=30

• When the above 3 lines will run , then Python will

create 3 objects , one by one and finally the reference
a will refer to the last object with the value 30

• An obvious question arises , that what will happen to

the previous 2 objects with the value 10 and 20 ?
 Three Important Terms

• Before understanding , what will happen to the

previous 2 objects , we need to understand 3
important terminologies:

1. Garbage Block

2. The Garbage Collection

3. Reference Counting
 The Garbage Block

• In Python , if an object is not being referred by any

reference , then such objects are called Garbage
Blocks.
The Garbage Block
 The Garbage Collection

• Garbage collection is the process of cleaning the

computer memory which was used by a running
program when that program no longer needs that
memory .

• Garbage collection is a memory management feature

in many programming languages.
 Reference Counting

• The process of memory management in Python is

straightforward.

• Python handles it’s objects by keeping a count to the

number of references each object has in the
program.

• In simple words it means, each object stores how many

references are currently referring it.
 Reference Counting

• This count is updated with the program runtime and

when it reaches 0, this means it is not reachable from
the program anymore.

• Hence, the memory for this object can be reclaimed and

be freed by the interpreter.
 Reference Counting

a=10 // The object 10 has a reference count of 1

b=10 // Now 10 has reference count of 2
a=20 // Now reference count of 10 becomes 1
b=20 // Finally reference count of 10 becomes 0

• As soon as the reference count of 10 becomes 0 ,

Python automatically removes the object 10 from
memory
 Reference Counting

• So in our example

a=10
a=20
a=30

• The objects 10 and 20 will be reclaimed by the Python

Garbage Collector as soon as their reference count
becomes 0
 Reference Counting

• ADVANTAGE:

• The main advantage of such approach is that unused memory is

reclaimed and made available for use again.

• DISADVANTAGE:

• The drawback is that Python has to continuously watch the

reference count of objects in the background and free them as
soon as reference count becomes 0.

• This is another important reason why Python is slow as

compared to other languages
 Another Important Question

• Consider the following statements:

a=42
b=42

• Can you tell how many objects has Python

created in the above code ?

• Answer: Only 1

• But , what is the proof ?

 Another Important Question

• We can prove this in 2 ways:

• By using id( ) function

• By using is operator
 The id( ) Function

• id() is a built-in function in Python 3, which returns

the identity of an object.

• The identity is a unique integer for that object during

it’s lifetime.

• This is also the address of the object in memory.

 The id( ) Function

• We can use the id( ) function to prove that whenever

we assign the same value to a variable then Python
simply assigns the address of existing object to the new
reference.
 The is Operator

• Another way to find out whether 2 references are

pointing to the same object or not is to use the is
operator.

• The is operator is a binary operator and checks whether

both the operands refer to the same object or not.
The is Operator
 An Important Twist !

• Example: • Example:

a= -5 a=256
b=-5 b=256
print(a is b) print(a is b)

• Output: • Output:
True True
 An Important Twist !

• Example: • Example:

a= -6 a=257
b=-6 b=257
print(a is b) print(a is b)

• Output: • Output:
False False

Python caches the integer values in the range -5 to 256 .

Beyond this range Python creates new objects even for the same
value
 Another Important Twist !

• Example: • Example:

a= “Bhopal” a=False
b=“Bhopal” b=False
print(a is b) print(a is b)

• Output: • Output:
True True
 Yet Another Important Twist !

• Example: • Example:

a= 1.0 a=(2+3j)
b=1.0 b=(4+5j)
print(a is b) print(a is b)

• Output: • Output:
False False

The concept of caching or object reusability applies to strings

and booleans but doesn’t apply to float and complex data types
 PYTHON
LECTURE 9
 Today’s Agenda

• Comments , Constants And More

About print( ) Function

• How to write Comments in Python ?

• How to create constants in Python ?

• How to print a variables value using print( ) ?

 Comments In Python

• Comments are statements in our program which are

ignored by the compiler or interpreter i.e they are
not executed by the language

• We generally create comments to let developers

understand our code’s logic.

• This is a necessary practice, and good developers make

heavy use of the comment system.

• Without it, things can get confusing

 Types Of Comments
In Python

• Python provides 2 types of comments:

• Single Line Comment ( official way of comment)

• MultiLine Comment ( un offcial way)

 Single Line Comments

• Single-line comments are created simply by beginning a

line with the hash (#) character, and they are
automatically terminated by the end of line.

• For example:
This line gets
a=10 commented out
#a=a+1 and is not
print(a) executed

Output:
10
 Official Way Of
Multi Line Comments

• To create a Multi Line Comments , the only problem

with this style is we will have prefix each line with # , as
shown below:

#a=a+1
#b=b+5
#c=c+10

• But most Python projects follow this style

and Python’s PEP 8 style guide also favours
repeated single-line comments.
 What Is PEP ?

• PEP stands for Python Enhancement Proposal.

• It is Python's style guide and is officially called PEP8

• In simple words it is a set of rules for how to format

your Python code to maximize its readability .

• We can find it at
https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/
 Why Is PEP Needed ?

• When you develop a program in a group of

programmers, it is really important to follow some
standards.

• If all team members format the code in the same

prescribed format, then it is much easier to read the
code.

• For the same purpose PEP8 is used to ensure Python

coding standards are met.
 Un Official Way Of
Multi Line Comments

• If we want to simplify our efforts for writing Multi

Line Comments , then we can wrap these comments
inside triple quotes ( double or single ) as shown
below

• For example: Both the

lines get
a=10 commented
out and are
' ' ' a=a+1 not executed
a=a+1 ' ' '
print(a)
Output:
10
 Why It Is Un Official ?

• Triple quotes doesn’t create “true” comments.

• They are regular multiline strings , but since they

are not getting assigned to any variable , they will get
garbage collected as soon as the code runs.

• Hence they are not ignored by the interpreter in the

same way that #a comment is.
 What Is A Constant ?

• A constant is a type of variable whose value cannot be

changed.

• C++ provides the keyword const for declaring

constant as shown below:
const float pi=3.14;
pi=5.0; // Syntax Error

• Java provides the keyword final for declaring

constant:
final double PI=3.14;
PI=5.0; // Syntax Error
 How To Create A Constant
In Python?

• Unfortunately , there is no keyword in Python ,

like const or final , to declare a variable as
constant.

• This is because of dynamic nature of Python .

• However there is a convention in Python , that we can

follow to let other developer’s know that we are
declaring a variable as constant and we don’t want
others to change it’s value.

• The convention is to declare the variable in all upper

case
 How To Create A Constant
In Python?

• For example:
PI=3.14
MAX_MARKS=100

• But again , remember this is just a convention not a rule

and still the value of PI and MAX_MARKS can be
changed
 Some More About print( )
Function

• We know that print( ) function can be used to print

messages on the output screen.

• But we can also use print( ) to display single or

multiple variable values.

• We just have to separate them with comma :

• print( arg1 , arg2, arg3, . . .)
 The print( ) Function

• Example: • Example:
a=“Good”
a=“Good”
b=10
b=“Morning” print(a+b)
print(a+b)

• Output:
• Output:
GoodMorning
TypeError
 The print( ) Function

• Example: • Example:
a=“Good”
a=“Good”
b=10
b=“Morning” print(a,b)
print(a,b)

• Output:
• Output: Good 10
Good Morning

Note the space

occurred
automatically in
between
 The print( ) Function

• Example: • Example:
a=“Good”
a=10
b=10
b=20 print(a,b)
print(a,b)

• Output:
• Output:
10 20
Good 10
 The print( ) Function

• Example:
name=“Sachin”
print(“My name is“, name)

• Output:
My name is Sachin
 The print( ) Function

• Example:
age=32
print(“My age is“, age)

• Output:
My age is 32
 The print( ) Function

• Example:
name=“Sachin”
age=32
print(“My name is“, name,”and my age is”,age)

Note , we have not provided any space at marked

positions but in the output we will automatically get
the space

• Output:
My name is Sachin and my age is 32
 How Is Space
Getting Generated?

• Just like print() function has a keyword argument

called end , which generates newline automatically ,
similarly it also has another keyword argument called
sep

• This argument has the default value of “ “ and is used

by Python to separate values of 2 arguments on
screen.
 How Is Space
Getting Generated?

• So the statement :
• print(“Good”,”Morning”)

• Is actually converted by Python to

• print(“Good”,”Morning”,sep=“ “)

• And the output becomes

• Good Morning
 Changing The
Default Value Of sep

• We can change the default value of sep to any value we

like .

• To do this , we just have to pass sep as the last

argument to the function print( )
• print(“Good”,”Morning”,sep=“,”)

• And the output becomes

• Good,Morning

Note that comma

has occurred
instead of space
 The print( ) Function

• Example: • Example:
hh=10
a=10
mm=30
b=20 ss=45
print(a,b,sep=“#”)
print(hh,mm,ss,sep=“:”)

• Output:
• Output:
10:30:45
10#20
 PYTHON
LECTURE 10
 QUIZ 2- Test Your Skills

1. What is the maximum possible length of an

identifier in Python?

A. 31 characters
B. 63 characters
C. 79 characters
D. none of the mentioned
Correct Answer: D
 QUIZ 2- Test Your Skills

2. Which of these in not a core data type in Python?

A. Class
B. List
C. Str
D. Tuple

Correct Answer: A
 QUIZ 2- Test Your Skills

3. Following set of commands are executed in shell, what will

be the output?
>>>str="hello"
>>>str[:2]

A. hel
B. he
C. Lo
D. olleh

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

4. What is the return type of function id ?

A. int
B. float
C. bool
D. dict

Correct Answer: A
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

5. Which of the following results in a SyntaxError ?

A. ' ''Once upon a time…'', she said. '

B. ''He said, 'Yes!' ''
C. '3\'
D. '' That's okay ''

Correct Answer: C
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

6. Which of the following is not a complex number?

A. k = 2 + 3j
B. k = complex(2)
C. k = 2 + 3I
D. k = 2 + 3J

Correct Answer: C
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

7. Which of the following is incorrect?

A. k = 0b101
B. k= 0x4f5
C. k = 19023
D. k = 0o3964
Correct Answer: D
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

8. What is the output of the code:

print(bool('False'))

A. False
B. True
C. SyntaxError
D. 0

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

9. Out of List and Tuple which is mutable ?

A. List
B. Tuple
C. Both
D. None

Correct Answer: A
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

10. Are string references mutable ?

A. Yes
B. No

Correct Answer: A
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

11. Are string objects mutable ?

A. Yes
B. No

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

12. Is there a do – while loop in Python ?

A. Yes
B. No

Correct Answer:B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

13. In Python which is the correct method to load a

module ?

A. include math
B. import math
C. #include<math.h>
D. using math

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

14. What is the name of data type for character in

Python ?

A. chr
B. char
C. str
D. None Of The Above

Correct Answer: D
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

15. Let a = "12345" then which of the following is

correct ?

A. print(a[:]) => 1234

B. print(a[0:]) => 2345
C. print(a[:100]) => 12345
D. print(a[1:]) => 1

Correct Answer: C
 Today’s Agenda

• Operators In Python
• Types Of Operators

• Arithmetic Operators

• Special points about + and *

• Difference between / and //

 Operators

• Operators are special symbols in that carry out

different kinds of computation on values.

• For example : 2+3

• In the expression 2+3 , + is an operator which

performs addition of 2 and 3 , which are called
operands
 Types Of Operators
In Python

• Python provides us 7 types of operators:

• Arithmetic Operators
• Relational or Comparison Operators
• Logical Operators
• Assignment Operator
• Bitwise Operators
• Identity Operators
• Membership Operators
 Arithmetic Operators
In Python

• In Python , we have 7 arithmetic operators and they are as below:

+
(Arithmetic Addition)
-
(Subtraction)
*
(Arithmetic Multiplication)
/
(Float Division)
%
(Modulo Division)
//
(Floor Division)
**
(Power or Exponentiation)
 The 5 Basic Arithmetic
Operators

mymath.py
a=10
b=4
print("sum of",a,"and",b,"is",a+b)
print("diff of",a,"and",b,"is",a-b)
print("prod of",a,"and",b,"is",a*b)
print("div of",a,"and",b,"is",a/b)
print("rem of",a,“and",b,"is",a%b)
 The 5 Basic Arithmetic
Operators

The Output:
 Two Special
Operators // and **

• The operator // in Python is called as floor division.

• Means it returns the integer part and not the

decimal part.

• For example: 5//2 will be 2 not 2.5

 Two Special
Operators // and **

• But there are 3 very important points to understand

about this operator

• When used with positive numbers the result is only the

integer part of the actual answer i.e. , the decimal part is
truncated

• However if one of the operands is negative, the result is

floored.

• If both the operands are integers , result will also be integer

,otherwise result will be float
 The Floor Division Operator

• Example: • Example:
a=10.0
a=10
b=4
b=4 print(a//b)
print(a//b)

• Output:
• Output: 2.0
2

If both the operands are integers , the result is also

an integer . But if any of the operands is float the result
is also float
 The Floor Division Operator

• Example: • Example:
a=97
a=97
b=10.0
b=10 print(a//b)
print(a//b)

• Output:
• Output: 9.0
9
 The Floor Division Operator

• Example: • Example:
a=19
a=-10
b=-2
b=4 print(a//b)
print(a//b)

• Output:
• Output: -10
-3
 The Floor Division Operator

• Example: • Example:
a=-19
a=-10
b=-2
b=-4 print(a//b)
print(a//b)

• Output:
• Output: 9
2
 An Important Point

• There is another very important point to remember

about the 3 operators / , // and %

• The point is that if the denominator in these

operators is 0 or 0.0 , then Python will throw the
exception called ZeroDivisionError
 Division By 0

• Example: • Example:
a=10
a=10
b=0.0
b=0 print(a/b)
print(a/b)

• Output:
• Output: ZeroDivisionError
ZeroDivisionError
 Division By 0

• Example: • Example:
a=10
a=10
b=0.0
b=0 print(a//b)
print(a//b)

• Output:
• Output: ZeroDivisionError
ZeroDivisionError
 Division By 0

• Example: • Example:
a=10
a=10
b=0.0
b=0 print(a%b)
print(a%b)

• Output:
• Output: ZeroDivisionError
ZeroDivisionError
 The power (**)Operator

• The power operator i.e. ** performs exponential

(power) calculation on operands.

• For example:
a=10
b=3
print(a**b)

• Output:
1000
 Double Role Of The
Operator +

• The operator + as discussed earlier also ,has 2 roles in

Python

• When used with numbers , it performs addition and

when used with strings it performs concatenation

• For example:
a=10
a=“Good”
b=5 b=“Evening”
print(a+b) print(a+b)
Output: Output:
GoodEvening
15
 Double Role Of The
Operator +

• Example: • Example:
a=“Good”
a=“Good”
b=“10”
b=10 print(a+b)
print(a+b)

• Output:
• Output: Good10
TypeError
 Double Role Of The
Operator *

• The operator * also has 2 roles in Python

• When used with numbers , it performs

multiplication and when used with one operand
string and other operand int it performs
repetition

• For example:
a=10 a=“Sachin”
b=5 b=3
print(a*b) print(a*b)
Output: Output:
50 SachinSachinSachin
 The * Operator

• Example: • Example:
a=“Sachin”
a=5
b=3.0
b=4.0 print(a*b)
print(a*b)

• Output:
• Output: Type Error :
20.0 Can’t multiply
by non int
 The * Operator

• Example: • Example:
a=“Sachin”
a=“Sachin”
b=“Kapoor”
b=3 print(a*b)
print(b*a)

• Output:
• Output: Type Error :
SachinSachinSachin Can’t multiply
by non int
 PYTHON
LECTURE 11
 Today’s Agenda

• Operators In Python
• Relational Operators

• Relational Operators With Strings

• Chaining Of Relational Operators

• Special Behavior Of == and !=

 Relational Operators
In Python

 Relational operators are used to compare values.

 They either return True or False according to the

condition.

 These operators are:

Operator Meaning
> Greater Than
< Less Than
>= Greater Than Equal To
<= Less Than Equal To
== Equal To
!= Not Equal To
 The 6 Basic Relational
Operators

myrelop.py
a=10
b=4
print("a=",a,"b=",b)
print("a > b",a>b)
print("a < b",a<b)
print("a==b",a==b)
print("a!=b",a!=b)
print("a>=b",a>=b)
print("a<=b",a<=b)
 The 6 Basic Relational
Operators

The Output:
 Relational Operators
With Strings

 Relational Operators can also work with strings .

 When applied on string operands , they compare the

unicode of corresponding characters and return True or
False based on that comparison.

 As discussed previuosly , this type of comparison is called

lexicographical comparsion
 Relational Operators
With Strings

myrelop2.py
a="Ramesh"
b="Rajesh"
print("a=",a,"b=",b)
print("a > b",a>b)
print("a < b",a<b)
print("a==b",a==b)
print("a!=b",a!=b)
print("a>=b",a>=b)
print("a<=b",a<=b)
 Relational Operators
With Strings

The Output:
 Relational Operators
With Strings

 If we want to check the UNICODE value for a particular letter ,

then we can call the function ord().

 It is a built in function which accepts only one character as

argument and it returns the UNICODE number of the argument
passed

 Example:
ord(‘A’)
65
ord(‘m’)
109
ord(‘j’)
106
 Relational Operators
With Strings

myrelop4.py
a= "BHOPAL"
b= "bhopal"
print("a=",a,"b=",b)
print("a > b",a>b)
print("a < b",a<b)
print("a==b",a==b)
print("a!=b",a!=b)
print("a>=b",a>=b)
print("a<=b",a<=b)
 Relational Operators
With Strings

The Output:
 Will This Code Run ?

a=True Yes , the code will successfully

Run because True is 1 and False is 0
b=False
print("a=",a,"b=",b) Output:
print("a > b",a>b)
print("a < b",a<b)
print("a==b",a==b)
print("a!=b",a!=b)
print("a>=b",a>=b)
print("a<=b",a<=b)
 What about this code?

a=‘True’ Yes , this code will also successfully

Run but ‘True’ and ‘False’ will be
b=‘False’ handled as strings
print("a=",a,"b=",b)
Output:
print("a > b",a>b)
print("a < b",a<b)
print("a==b",a==b)
print("a!=b",a!=b)
print("a>=b",a>=b)
print("a<=b",a<=b)
 Special Behavior Of
Relational Operators

 Python allows us to chain multiple relational

operators in one single statement.

 For example the expression 1<2<3 is perfectly valid in

Python

 However when Python evaluates the expression , it returns

True if all individual conditions are true , otherwise
it returns False
 Cascading Of
Relational Operators

• Example: • Example:
print(5<6>7)
print(7>6>5)

• Output:
• Output:
False
True
 Cascading Of
Relational Operators

• Example: • Example:
print(5<6<7)
print(5>6>7)

• Output:
• Output:
True
False
 Special Behavior Of
== And !=

 == compares it’s operands for equality and if they are of

compatible types and have same value then it returns
True otherwise it returns False

 Similarly != compares it’s operands for inequality and

if they are of incompatible types or have different
value then it returns True otherwise it returns False
 Special Behavior Of
== And !=

• Example: • Example:
print(10==20)
print(10==10)

• Output:
• Output:
False
True
 Special Behavior Of
== And !=

• Example: • Example:
print(10==True)
print(10==“10”)

• Output:
• Output:
False
False
 Special Behavior Of
== And !=

• Example: • Example:
print(“A”==“A”)
print(1==True)

• Output:
• Output:
True
True
 Special Behavior Of
== And !=

• Example: • Example:
print(“A”==65)
print(“A”==“65”)

• Output:
• Output:
False
False
 Special Behavior Of
== And !=

• Example: • Example:
print(15==15.01)
print(15==15.0)

• Output:
• Output:
False
True
 Special Behavior Of
== And !=

• Example: • Example:
print(0 != False)
print(15!=“15”)

• Output:
• Output:
False
True
 Special Behavior Of
== And !=

• Example: • Example:
print(False != 0.0)
print(False!=True)

• Output:
• Output:
False
True
 Special Behavior Of
== And !=

• Example: • Example:
print(2+5j!= 2)
print(2+5j==2+5j)

• Output:
• Output:
True
True
 PYTHON
LECTURE 12
 Today’s Agenda

• Operators In Python
• Logical Operators

• How Logical Operators Work With Boolean Types ?

• How Logical Operators Work With Non Boolean Types ?

 Logical Operators
In Python

 Logial operators are used to combine two or more

conditions and perform the logical operations using
Logical and, Logical or and Logical not.

Operator Meaning

and It will return true when both conditions

are true

or It will returns true when at-least one of

the condition is true

not If the condition is true, logical NOT

operator makes it false
 Behavior Of
Logical and Operator
 Behavior Of
Logical or Operator
 Behavior Of
Logical not Operator
 Behavior Of
Logical Operators With
Non Boolean

 Python allows us to apply logical operators with non

boolean types also

 But before we understand how these operators work with

non boolean types, we must understand some very
important points
 Behavior Of
Logical Operators With
Non Boolean

1. None, 0 , 0.0 ,”” are all False values

2. The return value of Logical and & Logical or

operators is never True or False when they are applied
on non boolean types.
 Behavior Of
Logical Operators With
Non Boolean

3. If the first value is False , then Logical and returns

first value , otherwise it returns the second value

4. If the first value is True , then Logical or returns first

value , otherwise it returns the second value

5. When we use not operator on non boolean types , it

returns True if it’s operand is False( in any form) and
False if it’s operand is True ( in any form)
 Logical Operators
On Non Boolean Types

• Example: • Example:
5 and 0
5 and 6

• Output:
• Output:
0
6
 Logical Operators
On Non Boolean Types

• Example: • Example:
6 and 0
0 and 10

• Output:
• Output:
0
0
 Logical Operators
On Non Boolean Types

• Example: • Example:
‘Sachin’ and 0
‘Sachin’ and 10

• Output:
• Output:
0
10
 Logical Operators
On Non Boolean Types

• Example: • Example:
‘Indore’ and ‘Bhopal’ ‘Bhopal’ and ‘Indore’

• Output: • Output:
Bhopal Indore
 Logical Operators
On Non Boolean Types

• Example: • Example:
0 and 10/0 10/0 and 0

• Output: • Output:
0 ZeroDivisionEror
 Logical Operators
On Non Boolean Types

• Example: • Example:
5 or 0
5 or 6

• Output:
• Output:
5
5
 Logical Operators
On Non Boolean Types

• Example: • Example:
6 or 0
0 or 10

• Output:
• Output:
6
10
 Logical Operators
On Non Boolean Types

• Example: • Example:
‘Sachin’ or 0
‘Sachin’ or 10

• Output:
• Output:
Sachin
Sachin
 Logical Operators
On Non Boolean Types

• Example: • Example:
‘Indore’ or ‘Bhopal’ ‘Bhopal’ or ‘Indore’

• Output: • Output:
Indore Bhopal
 Logical Operators
On Non Boolean Types

• Example: • Example:
0 or 10/0 10/0 or 0

• Output: • Output:
ZeroDivisionError ZeroDivisionEror
 Logical Operators
On Non Boolean Types

• Example: • Example:
not 5 not 0

• Output: • Output:
False True
 Logical Operators
On Non Boolean Types

• Example: • Example:
not ‘Sachin’ not ‘’

• Output: • Output:
False True
 PYTHON
LECTURE 13
 Today’s Agenda

• Operators In Python
• Introduction To Bitwise Operators

• Six Types Of Bitwise Operators

 Bitwise Operators
In Python

 Bitwise operators are those operators which work at the

bit level

 All the integer values will be converted into binary values

and then bitwise operators will work on these bits.

 Also , we can apply these operators on just 2 data types int

and bool
 Bitwise Operators
In Python

 Python provides 6 Bitwise operators and they are:

Operator Meaning

& Bitwise AND

| Bitwise OR

^ Bitwise XOR

~ Bitwise one’s complement

<< Bitwise Left Shift

>> Bitwise Right Shift

 Bitwise AND Operator

1. Denoted using the symbol &

2. Takes 2 operands and compares their corresponding
bits
3. If both bits are 1 , it returns 1 otherwise it returns 0

And operator Result

0&0 0

0&1 0

1&0 0

1&1 1
 Examples Of & Operator

Explanation: Explanation:
Binary of 2 : 0010 Binary of 7 : 0111
Binary of 3: 0011 Binary of 9: 1001
Bitwise & : 0010 Bitwise & : 0001
Final Result: 2 Final Result: 1
 Examples Of & Operator

a=15 a=8
b=1 b=10
c=a & b c=a & b
print(c) print(c)
Output:
Output:
8
1
Explanation: Explanation:
Binary of 15 : 1111 Binary of 8 : 1000
Binary of 1: 0001 Binary of 10: 1010
Bitwise & : 0001 Bitwise & : 1000
Final Result: 1 Final Result: 8
 Examples Of & Operator

a=True a=True
b=False b=True
c=a & b c=a & b
print(c) print(c)
Output:
Output:
True
False
Explanation: Explanation:
Binary of True(1) : 0001 Binary of True(1) : 0001
Binary of False(0): 0000 Binary of True(1): 0001
Bitwise & : 0000 Bitwise & : 0001
Final Result: False Final Result: True
 Bitwise OR Operator

1. Denoted using the symbol |

2. Takes 2 operands and compares their corresponding
bits
3. If both bits are 0 , it returns 0 otherwise it returns 1

Or operator Result
0|0 0

0|1 1

1|0 1

1|1 1
 Examples Of | Operator

a=2 a=7
b=3 b=9
c=a | b c=a | b
print(c) print(c)
Output:
Output:
15
3
Explanation: Explanation:
Binary of 2 : 0010 Binary of 7 : 0111
Binary of 3: 0011 Binary of 9: 1001
Bitwise | : 0011 Bitwise | : 1111
Final Result: 3 Final Result: 15
 Examples Of | Operator

a=True a=True
b=False b=True
c=a|b c=a|b
print(c) print(c)
Output:
Output:
True
True
Explanation: Explanation:
Binary of 1 : 0001 Binary of 1 : 0001
Binary of 0: 0000 Binary of 1: 0001
Bitwise | : 0001 Bitwise | : 0001
Final Result: True Final Result: True
 Bitwise XOR Operator

1. Denoted using the symbol ^

2. Takes 2 operands and compares their corresponding
bits
3. Returns 1 only if both the bits are different otherwise
it returns 0

XOR operator Result

0^0 0

0^1 1

1^0 1

1^1 0
 Examples Of ^Operator

a=2 a=7
b=3 b=9
c=a^b c=a^b
print(c) print(c)
Output:
Output:
14
1
Explanation: Explanation:
Binary of 2 : 0010 Binary of 7 : 0111
Binary of 3: 0011 Binary of 9: 1001
Bitwise ^ : 0001 Bitwise ^ : 1110
Final Result: 1 Final Result: 14
 Examples Of ^ Operator

a=True a=True
b=False b=True
c=a^b c=a^b
print(c) print(c)
Output:
Output:
False
True
Explanation: Explanation:
Binary of 1 : 0001 Binary of 1 : 0001
Binary of 0: 0000 Binary of 1: 0001
Bitwise ^ : 0001 Bitwise ^ : 0000
Final Result: True Final Result: False
 Bitwise
One’s Complement Operator

1. Denoted using the symbol ~

2. Takes an integer and flips all the bits (swapping 0 with 1 and
vice versa).

Example:
a=2
b=~a
print( b )
Output:
-3
Explanation
 Binary for 2 is 00000010. Its one’s complement is 11111101.
This is binary for -3.
 Bitwise
Left Shift Operator

1. Denoted by <<
2. Shifts the bits of the number towards left by the specified
number of places.
3. Adds 0 to the empty least-significant places

Example:
a=10
b=a<<1
print( b )
Output:
20
Explanation
Binary of 2 : 0010
Left Shift by 1: 00100
Result : 20
New bit
 Examples Of
Left Shift Operator

a=15 a=7
b=3 b=2
c=a<<b c=a<<b
print(c) print(c)
Output:
Output:
28
120
Explanation: Explanation:
Binary of 15 : 1111 Binary of 7 : 0111
Left Shift by 3: 1111000 Left Shift by 2: 11100
Final Result: 120 Final Result: 28
 Examples Of
Left Shift Operator

a=True a=False
b=a<<1 b=a<<1
print(b) print(b)
Output: Output:
0
2

Explanation: Explanation:
Binary of 1 : 0001 Binary of 0 : 0000
Left Shift By 1 : 0010 Left Shift By 1 : 0000
Final Result: 2 Final Result: 0
 Bitwise
Right Shift Operator

1. Denoted by >>
2. Shifts the bits of the number towards right by the specified
number of places.
3. Adds 0 to the empty most-significant places

Example:
a=10
b=a>>1
print( b )
Output:
5
Explanation
Binary of 10 : 1010
Right Shift by 1: 0101
Result : 5
New bit
 Examples Of
Right Shift Operator

a=15 a=7
b=3 b=2
c=a>>b c=a>>b
print(c) print(c)
Output:
Output:
1
1
Explanation: Explanation:
Binary of 15 : 1111 Binary of 7 : 0111
Right Shift by 3: 0001 Right Shift by 2: 0001
Final Result: 1 Final Result: 1
 Examples Of
Right Shift Operator

a=True a=False
b=a>>1 b=a>>1
print(b) print(b)
Output: Output:
0
0

Explanation: Explanation:
Binary of 1 : 0001 Binary of 0 : 0000
Right Shift By 1 : 0000 Right Shift By 1 : 0000
Final Result: 0 Final Result: 0
 PYTHON
LECTURE 14
 Today’s Agenda

• Operators In Python
• Assignment Operators

• Various Types Of Assignment Operators

• Compound Operators

• Identity Operators

• Membership Operators
 Assignment Operators
In Python

 The Python Assignment Operators are used to assign

the values to the declared variables.

 Equals (=) operator is the most commonly used assignment

operator in Python.

 For example:
 a=10
 Assignment Operators
In Python

 Shortcut for assigning same value to all the variables

 x=y=z=10

 Shortcut for assigning different value to all the variables

 x,y,z=10,20,30
 Guess The Output

a,b,c=10,20
print(a,b,c)

Output:
ValueError : Not enough values to unpack

a,b,c=10,20,30,40
print(a,b,c)

Output:
ValueError : Too many values to unpack
 Compound Assignment
Operators

 Python allows us to combine arithmetic operators as

well as bitwise operators with assignment operator.

 For example: The statement

 x=x+5

 Can also be written as

 x+=5
 Compound Assignment
Operators

Operator Example Meaning

+= x+=5 x=x+5
-= x-=5 x=x-5
*= x*=5 x=x*5
/= x/=5 x=x/5
%= x%=5 x=x%5
//= x//=5 x=x//5
**= x**=5 x=x**5
&= x&=5 x=x&5
!= x!=5 x=x!5
^= x^=5 x=x^5
>>= x>>=5 x=x>>5
<<= x<<=5 x=x<<5
 Guess The Output

a=10
Conclusion:
print(++a) Python does not has any
increment operator like ++.
Output:
10 Rather it is solved as
+(+x) i.e +(+10) which is 10

a=10 However the expression a++

print(a++) is an error as it doesn’t make
any sense
Output:
SyntaxError : Invalid Syntax
 Guess The Output

a=10
Conclusion:
print(--a) Python does not has any
decrement operator like --.
Output:
10 Rather it is solved as
-(-x) i.e -(-10) which is 10

a=10 However the expression a--

print(a--) is an error as it doesn’t make
any sense
Output:
SyntaxError : Invalid Syntax
 Guess The Output

a=10
Try to figure out yourself
print(+++++a) the reason for these outputs

Output:
10

a=10
print(-----a)

Output:
-10
 Identity Operators

 Identity operators in Python are is and is not

 They serve 2 purposes:

 To verify if two references point to the same memory location

or not

 To determine whether a value is of a certain class or type

 Identity Operators

 The operator is returns True if the operands are identical

, otherwise it returns False.

 The operator is not returns True if the operands are not

identical , otherwise it returns False.
 Examples Of is Operator

a=2 a=2
b=3 b=2
c=a is b c=a is b
print(c) print(c)
Output:
Output:
True
False
Explanation: Explanation:
Since a and b are pointing Since a and b are pointing
to 2 different objects, so to same objects, so
the operator is returns the operator is returns
False True
 Examples Of is Operator

a=2 a=2
b=type(a) is int b=type(a) is float
print(b) print(b)
Output: Output:
False
True

Explanation: Explanation:
type(a) is int evaluates type(a) is float evaluates
to True because 2 is to False because 2 is not a
indeed an integer number. float number.
 Examples Of is not Operator

a=“Delhi” a=“Delhi”
b=“Delhi” b=“delhi”
c=a is not b c=a is not b
print(c) print(c)
Output:
Output:
True
False
Explanation: Explanation:
Since a and b are pointing Since a and b are pointing
to the same object, so to 2 differentobjects, so
the operator is not returns the operator is not returns
False True
 Membership Operators

 Membership operators are used to test whether a value

or variable is found in a sequence
(string, list, tuple, set and dictionary).

 There are 2 Membership operators

 in

 not in
 Membership Operators

 in: The ‘in’ operator is used to check if a value exists in a

sequence or not

 not in : The ‘not in’ operator is the opposite of ‘in’

operator. So, if a value does not exists in the sequence then
it will return a True else it will return a False.
 Examples Of in Operator

a=“Welcome” a=“Welcome”
b=“om” b=“mom”
print(b in a) print(b in a)

Output:
Output:
False
True
 Examples Of not in Operator

primes=[2,3,5,7,11]
primes=[2,3,5,7,11]
x=5
x=4 print(x not in primes)
print(x not in primes)

Output: Output:
False
True
 PYTHON
LECTURE 15
 Today’s Agenda

• Input Function And Math Module In

Python

• Using the input( ) Function

• Using the math module

• Different ways of importing a module

• Accepting multiple values in single line

 Accepting Input In Python

 To accept user input , Python provides us a function called

input ( )

 Syntax:

 input([prompt])

 The input() function takes a single optional argument

, which is the string to be displayed on console.
 Return Value Of input( )

 The input() function reads a line from keyboard ,

converts the line into a string by removing the trailing
newline, and returns it.
 Example 1
(Using input() without message)

print("enter your name")

name=input()
print("Hello",name)

Output:
 Example 2
(Using input( ) With Message)

name=input("enter your name")

print("Hello",name)

 Output:
 Example 3
(Using input( ) With Message)

name=input(“Enter your full name:”)

print("Hello",name)

 Output:
 Accepting Integer Input

 By default the function input( ) returns the inputted value

as a string

 So , even if we input a numeric value , still Python

considers it to be string
 Accepting Integer Input

 To understand this behavior , consider the following code:

a=input("enter a number\n")
b=a+1
print(b)

 Output:
 Accepting Integer Input

 To solve this , we can use Type Conversion Functions

in Python , for converting a given value from string to
other type.

 For example , in the previous code , we can use the function

int( ) to convert string value to integer
 Accepting Integer Input

a=input("enter a number\n")
b=int(a)+1
print(b)
OR
a=int(input("enter a number\n")
b=a+1
print(b)
 Accepting Float And Bool

 For converting input values to float and boolean we can call

float( ) and bool( ) functions

 Example:
s=input("enter your percentage\n")
per=float(s)
print(per)
OR
s=input(“Delete the file ?(yes-True,no-False)")
ans=bool(s)
print(ans)
 Exercise

 WAP to accept two numbers from the user and

display their sum
Code:
a=int(input("Enter first num:"))
b=int(input("Enter secnd num:"))
c=a+b
print("Nos are",a,"and",b)
print("Their sum is",c)
 Exercise

 Can you write the previous code in one line only ?

Code:
print("Their sum is",int(input("Enter first
num:"))+int(input("Enter secnd num:")))
 Exercise

 WAP to accept radius of a Circle from the user and

calculate area and circumference
Code:
radius=float(input("Enter radius:"))
area=3.14*radius**2
circum=2*3.14*radius
print("Area is",area)
print("Circumference is",circum)
 Exploring More About
math Module

 We have already discussed that Python has a module called

math .

 This module helps us perform mathematical calculations

 It contains several mathematical constants and

functions
 Exploring More About
math Module

 Following are some important functions :

 math.factorial(x)
 math.floor(x)
 math.ceil(x)
 math.gcd(a, b)
 math.pow(x,y)
 math.sqrt(x)

 Following are it’s important mathematical constants:

 math.pi : The mathematical constant π = 3.141592…

 math.e: The mathematical constant e = 2.718281…,

 math.tau: Tau is a circle constant equal to 2π

 Modified Version Of Previous
Code Using math Module

Code:
import math
radius=float(input("Enter radius:"))
area=math.pi*math.pow(radius,2)
circum=math.tau*radius
print("Area is",area)
print("Circumference is",circum)
 Second Way To Import
A Module

 We can use aliasing for module names

 To do this , Python provides us as keyword

 Syntax:
 import modname as newname

 This helps us to use short names for modules and make

them more easy to use
 Using as Keyword

Code
import platform as p
print(p.system())
 Second Way Of Writing Previous
Code Using math Module

Code:
import math as m
radius=float(input("Enter radius:"))
area=m.pi*m.pow(radius,2)
circum=m.tau*radius
print("Area is",area)
print("Circumference is",circum)
 Third Way To Import
A Module

 We can also import specific members of a module

 To do this , Python provides us from keyword

 Syntax:
 from modname import name1[, name2[, ... nameN]]

 In this way we will not have to prefix the module

name before the member name while accessing it
 Using from Keyword

Code
from sys import getsizeof
a=10
b=“hello”
print(getsizeof(a))
print(getsizeof(b))
 Third Way Of Writing Previous
Code Using math Module

Code:
from math import pi,tau,pow
radius=float(input("Enter radius:"))
area=pi*pow(radius,2)
circum=tau*radius
print("Area is",area)
print("Circumference is",circum)
 Fourth Way To Import
A Module

 It is also possible to import all names from a module into

the current file by using the wildcard character *

 Syntax:
 from modname import *

 This provides an easy way to import all the items from a

module into the current file
 Using WildCard Character

Code
from sys import *
a=10
b=“hello”
print(getsizeof(a))
print(getsizeof(b))
 Fourth Way Of Writing Previous
Code Using math Module

Code:
from math import *
radius=float(input("Enter radius:"))
area=pi*pow(radius,2)
circum=tau*radius
print("Area is",area)
print("Circumference is",circum)
 How To List
All Members Of A Module

 In Python , we can print members of a module in the

Python Shell window

 This can be done in 2 ways:

 By calling the dir( ) function passing it the module name

 By calling the help( ) function passing it the module name

 Using dir( )

 The dir( ) function accepts the name of a module as

argument and returns a list of all it’s members.

 However the module must be imported before passing it

to the dir( ) function
 Using help( )

 The help( ) function accepts the name of a module as

argument and displays complete documentation of all the
members of the module

 Here also , module must be imported before using it.

 Accepting Different Values

 WAP to accept roll number , name and percentage

as input from the user and display it back
Code
roll=int(input("Enter roll no:"))
name=input("Enter name:");
per=float(input("Enter per:"))
print("Roll no is",roll)
print("Name is",name)
print("Per is",per)
 Exercise

 Write a program that asks the user to enter his/her

name and age. Print out a message , displaying the
user’s name along with the year in which they will
turn 100 years old.
 Accepting Multiple
Values In One Line

 In Python , the input( ) function can read and return a

complete line of input as a string.

 However , we can split this input string into individual

values by using the function split( ) available in the class
str

 The function split( ) , breaks a string into multiple strings

by using space as a separator
 Accepting Multiple
Values In One Line

 To understand , working of split( ) , consider the following

example:

text=“I Love You”

word1,word2,word3=text.split()
print(word1)
print(word2)
print(word3)
Output:
I
Love
You
 Accepting Multiple
Values In One Line

text=input(“Type a 3 word message”)

word1,word2,word3=text.split()
print(“First word”,word1)
print(“Secnd word”,word2)
print(“Third word”,word3)
Output:
 An Important Point!

 The number of variables on left of assignment operator and

number of values generated by split() must be the same
 Exercise

 Write a program that asks the user to input 2

integers and adds them . Accept both the numbers
in a single line only
 Solution

Code:
s=input("Enter 2 numbers:")
a,b=s.split()
print("First number is",a);
print("Second number is",b)
c=int(a)+int(b)
print("Their sum is",c)
 Accepting Multiple
Values Separated With ,

 By default split( ) function considers , space as a separator

 However , we can use any other symbol also as a separator

if we pass that symbol as argument to split( ) function

 For example , if we use comma , as a separator then we can

provide comma separated input
 Example

Code:
s=input("Enter 2 numbers separated with comma:")
a,b=s.split(",")
print("First number is",a);
print("Second number is",b)
c=int(a)+int(b)
print("Their sum is",c)
 Accepting Different Values
In One Line

Code:
s=input("Enter roll no,name and per:")
roll,name,per=s.split()
print("Roll no is",roll)
print("Name is",name)
print("Per is",per)
 PYTHON
LECTURE 16
 Today’s Agenda

• eval( ) Function , Command Line

Arguments and Various print( )
Options

• Using the eval( ) Function

• Using Command Line Arguments

• Using format specifiers in Python

• Using the function format( )

 Using The Function eval( )

 Python has a very interesting function called eval( ) .

 This function can accept any valid Python expression

and executes it
 Using The Function eval( )

 Syntax:
 eval(expression)

 The argument passed to eval() must follow below

mentioned rules:

 It must be given in the form of string

 It should be a valid Python code or expression

 Examples

• Example: • Example:
x = eval(‘2+3*6’)
x = eval(’2+3’)
print(x)
print(x)

• Output:
• Output:
5
20
 Examples

• Example: • Example:
from math import sqrt
eval(‘print(15)’)
x = eval(‘sqrt(4)’)
print(x)

• Output: • Output:
15 2.0
 Using eval( ) For
Type Conversion

 Another important use of eval( ) function is to perform type

conversion .

 The eval( ) function interprets the argument inside character

string and coverts it automatically to it’s type.

Example:
Same Example
x = eval(‘2.5’) Without eval( ):
print(x) x = ‘2.5’
print(type(x)) print(x)
print(type(x))

Output: Output:
2.5 2.5
<class ‘float’> <class ‘str’>
 Using eval( ) With input( )

 We can use eval( ) with input( ) function to perform

automatic type conversion of values.

 In this way , we will not have to use type conversion

functions like int() , float( ) or bool ()
 Example

Code:
age = eval(input("Enter your age "))
age=age+10
print("After 10 years , you will be ",age, "years old")

Output:
 Guess The Output

• Example:
a=eval(input("Type something:"))
print(a)
print(type(a))

• Output:
 Guess The Output

• Example:
a=eval(input("Type something:"))
print(a)
print(type(a))

• Output:
 Guess The Output

• Example:
a=eval(input("Type something:"))
print(a)
print(type(a))

• Output:
 Command Line Arguments

 Command Line Arguments are the values , we can pass

while executing our python code from command prompt

 Syntax: These are called

 python prog_name <values? commad line
arguments

 For example:
 python demo.py 10 20 30

Their main benefit is that they are another mechanism to

provide input to our program
 Where Are
Command Line Arguments Stored ?

 Command Line Arguments are stored by Python in a

special predefined variable called argv

 Following are it’s important features:

 This variable itself is stored in a module called sys

 So to use it , we must import sys module in our program

 The variable argv is actually a list

 The name of the program is passed as the first argument which is stored
at the 0th index in argv
 Example

Code (suppose name of prog is cmdarg.py):

from sys import argv
print(argv)
print(type(argv))

Output:
 Accessing Individual Values

 argv is a list type object

 Lists are index based

 They always start from 0th index

 So if we want to access individual elements of argv then we

can use the subscript operator passing it the index
number
 Accessing Individual Values

Code:
from sys import argv
print(argv[0])
print(argv[1])

Output:
 Guess The Output

Code: If we try to access

from sys import argv argv beyond it’s last
index then
print(argv[0]) Python will throw
IndexError
print(argv[1]) exception
print(argv[2])

Execution: python cmdarg.py

Output:
cmdarg.py
IndexError: list index out of range
 Obtaining Number Of
Arguments Passed

 The built in function len( ) can be used to get the number

of arguments passed from command prompt

Code:
from sys import argv
n=len(argv)
print("You have passed",n-1,"arguments")
Output:
 Using Slicing Operator

 A list in Python is also a sequence type like a string

 So , it also supports slicing i.e. we can use the slicing

operator [ : ] , to retrieve the list values from any index.

 For example , if we don’t want the program name then we

can use the slicing operator passing it the index number 1
as start index
 Example

Code (suppose name of prog is cmdarg.py):

from sys import argv
print(argv[1:])

Output:
 Guess The Output

Code (suppose name of prog is cmdarg.py):

from sys import argv
print(argv[1:])

Execution: python cmdarg.py

Output:
[]
 Guess The Output

Code: addnos.py
from sys import argv
print(“First num is“,argv[1])
print(“Sec num is“,argv[2])
print(“Their sum is”,argv[1]+argv[2])

Execution: python addnos.py 15 20

By default , Python
Output: treats all the
First num is 15 command line
arguments as string
Sec num is 20 values
Their sum is 1520
 How To Solve This ?

 To solve the previous problem , we will have to type

convert string values to int.

 This can be done by using int( ) or eval( ) function

 Example

Code:
from sys import argv
a=eval(argv[1])
b=eval(argv[2])
print("Nos are",a,"and",b)
print("Their sum is",a+b)
 Guess The Output

Code:
from sys import argv
print(“Hello”,argv[1])

Execution: python cmdarg.py Sachin Kapoor

For Python Sachin and

Output: Kapoor are 2 separate
Hello Sachin arguments , so argv[1]
receives Sachin and
argv[2] receives
Kapoor
 Guess The Output

If we want to pass Sachin Kapoor as a single

argument then we must enclose it in double quotes
Code:
from sys import argv
print(“Hello”,argv[1])

Execution: python cmdarg.py “Sachin Kapoor”

Output:
Hello Sachin Kapoor
 Guess The Output

Code:
from sys import argv
print(“Hello”,argv[1])

Execution: python cmdarg.py ‘Sachin Kapoor’

Output: On command prompt

Hello ‘Sachin only double quoted
strings are treated as
single value.
 Using Format Specifiers
With print()

 Just like C language Python also allows us to use format

specifiers with variables.

 The format specifiers supported by Python are:

 %d: Used for int values

 %i: Used for int values
 %f: Used for float values
 %s: Used for string value
 Using Format Specifiers
With print()

 Syntax:
 print(“format specifier” %(variable list))

Example:
a=10
print(“value of a is %d “ %(a))

Output: If a single variable is

there then parentesis
value of a is 10 can be dropped
 Using Format Specifiers
With print()

Example:
a=10
msg=“Welcome”
c=1.5
print(“values are %d , %s,%f“ %(a,msg,c))

Output:
Values are 10, Welcome, 1,500000 Number of format
specifiers must
exactly match
with the number
of vlaues in the
parenthesis
 Key Points About
Format Specifiers

 The number of format specifiers and number of

variables must always match

 We should use the specified format specifier to display

a particular value.

 For example we cannot use %d for strings

 However we can use %s with non string values also , like

boolean
 Examples

a=10
print(“%s” %a)
 Output:
10

a=10
print(“%f” %a)
 Output:
10.000000
 Examples

a=10.6 a=10.6
print(“%f” %a) print(“%d” %a)
Output:
 Output:
10
10.600000

a=10.6 a=10.6
print(“%s” %a)
print(“%.2f” %a) Output:
 Output: 10.6
10.60
 Examples

a=True a=True
print(“%s” %a) print(“%f” %a)
Output:
 Output:
1.000000
True

a=True
print(“%d” %a)
 Output:
1
 Examples

a=“Bhopal” a=“Bhopal”
print(“%s” %a) print(“%f” %a)
Output:
 Output:
TypeError
Bhopal

a=“Bhopal”
print(“%d” %a)
 Output:
TypeError: number required , not str
 Using The Function format()

 Python 3 introduced a new way to do string formatting

by providing a method called format( ) in string object

 This “new style” string formatting gets rid of the %

operator and makes the syntax for string formatting more
regular.
 Using The Function format()

 Syntax:
 print(“string with { }”.format(values))

 Example
 name=“Sachin”
 age=36
 print(“My name is {0} and my age is {1}”.format(name,age))
 Output:
 My name is Sachin and my age is 36
 Examples

name=“Sachin”
age=36
print(“My name is {1} and my age is{0}”.format(age,name))

 Output:
My name is Sachin and my age is 36
 Using The Function format()

 Example
 name=“Sachin”
 age=36
 print(“My name is {n} and my age is
{a}”.format(n=name,a=age))
 Output:
 My name is Sachin and my age is 36
 PYTHON
LECTURE 17
 Today’s Agenda

• Decision Control Statements

• The if Statement

• Concept of Indentation

• The if-else Statement

• The if-elif-else Statement

 Decision Control Statements

 Decision Control Statements in Python are those

statements which decide the execution flow of our program.

 In other words , they allow us to decide whether a

particular part of our program should run or not
based upon certain condition.

 The 4 decision control statements in Python are:

 if
 if….else
 if…elif…else
 nested if
 The if Statement

 The if the statement in Python is similar to other

languages like in Java, C, C++, etc.

 It is used to decide whether a certain statement or block of

statements will be executed or not .

 If a certain condition is true then a block of statement is

executed otherwise not.
 The if Statement

 Syntax:
if (expression):
statement1
statement2
.
.
statement..n

 Some Important Points:

 Python does not use { } to define the body of a code block , rather it uses indentation.

 A code block starts with indentation and ends with the first unindented line.

 The amount of indentation is up to the programmer, but he/she must be consistent

throughout that block.

 The colon after if( ) condition is important and is a part of the syntax. However parenthesis
with condition is optional
 Exercise

 WAP to accept an integer from the user and check

whether it is an even or odd
 Solution

Solution 1:
a=eval(input("Enter a number:"))
if(a%2==0):
If the body of if( )
print("No is even") statement
if(a%2!=0): contains only one
statement , then
print("No is odd") we can write it just
after if( )
statement also
Solution 2:
if(a%2==0):print("No is even")
if(a%2!=0): print("No is odd")
 What About Multiple Lines ?

 If there are multiple lines in the body of if( ) , then :

 Either we can write them inside if( ) by properly indenting

them

OR

 If we write them just after if ( ) , then we must use semicolon

as a separator
 What About Multiple Lines ?

Solution 1:
if(a%2==0):
print("No is even")
print(“Hello”)
if(a%2!=0):
print("No is odd")
print(“Hi”)
Solution 2:
if(a%2==0): print("No is even");print(“Hello”)
if(a%2!=0): print("No is odd");print(“Hi”)
 The if –else Statement

 The if..else statement evaluates test expression and will

execute body of if only when test condition is True.

 If the condition is False, body of else is executed.

 Indentation is used to separate the blocks.

 The if-else Statement

 Syntax:
if (expression):
statement 1
statement 2
else:
statement 3
statement 4

Indentation and colon are important for else also

 Example

a=eval(input("Enter a number:"))
if(a%2==0):
print("No is even")
else:
print("No is odd")
 Exercise

 WAP to accept a character from the user and check

whether it is a capital letter or small letter. Assume
user will input only alphabets
 Solution

Solution 1: We also can use

s=input("Enter a character:") the logical and
ch=s[0] operator and
if "A"<=ch<="Z": make the
print("You entered a capital letter") conditions
else: separate
print("You entered a small letter")

Solution 2:
s=input("Enter a character:")
ch=s[0]
if ch>="A" and ch<="Z":
print("You entered a capital letter")
else:
print("You entered a small letter")
 Guess The Output

Code:
s=input("Enter a character:")
ch=s[0]
if 65<=ch<=90:
print("You entered a capital letter")
else:
print("You entered a small letter")

Suppose the input given is A

Output:
TypeError: <= not supported between int and str
 Why Did The Exception Occur ?

 Recall that, in Python we don’t have character data

type and even single letter data is a string.

 So the input “A” , is not converted to UNICODE

automatically because it is still treated as a string value.

 Thus , the comparison failed between string and integer.

 Solution

 The solution is to convert the “A” to it’s corresponding

UNICODE value .

 Can you think , how can we do it ?

 The answer is , using the function ord( ).

 Recall that , this function accepts a single letter string

and returns it’s UNICODE value
 Solution

s=input("Enter a character:")
ch=s[0]
if 65<=ord(ch)<=90:
print("You entered a capital letter")
else:
print("You entered a small letter")
 The if –elif-else Statement

 The elif is short for else if. It allows us to check for

multiple expressions.

 If the condition for if is False, it checks the condition of

the next elif block and so on.

 If all the conditions are False, body of else is executed.

 The if –elif-else Statement

 Syntax:
if (expression):
statement 1
statement 2
elif (expression):
statement 3
statement 4
else:
statement 5
statement 6

Although it is not visible in the syntax , but we can have

multiple elif blocks with a single if block
 Exercise

 WAP to accept a character from the user and check

whether it is a capital letter or small letter or a
digit or some special symbol
 Solution

s=input("Enter a character:")
ch=s[0]
if "A" <=ch <="Z":
print("You entered a capital letter")
elif "a" <=ch <="z":
print("You entered a small letter")
elif "0" <=ch <="9":
print("You entered a digit")
else:
print("You entered some symbol")
 The nested if Statement

 We can have a if...elif...else statement inside

another if...elif...else statement.

 This is called nesting in computer programming.

 Any number of these statements can be nested inside one

another.

 Indentation is the only way to figure out the level of

nesting
 The nested if Statement

 Syntax:
if (expression):
if (expression):
statement 1
statement 2
else:
statement 3
statement 4
statement 5
statement 6
 Exercise

 WAP to accept 3 integers from the user and

without using any logical operator and cascading of
relational operators , find out the greatest number
amongst them
 Solution

a,b,c=input("Enter 3 int").split()
a=int(a)
b=int(b)
c=int(c)
if a>b:
if a>c:
print("{0} is greatest".format(a))
else:
print("{0} is greatest".format(c))
else:
if b>c:
print("{0} is greatest".format(b))
else:
print("{0} is greatest".format(c))
 Exercise

 WAP to accept an year from the user and check whether

it is a leap year or not.

An year is a leap year if:

It is exactly divisible by 4 and at the same time not
divisible by 100
OR
It is divisible by 400

For example:
2017 is not a leap year
2012 is a leap year
1900 is a not leap year
2000 is a leap year
 PYTHON
LECTURE 18
 Today’s Agenda

• Iterative Statements
• Types of loop supported by Python

• The while loop

• The while-else loop

• The break , continue and pass Statement

 Iterative Statements

 There may be a situation when we need to execute a block

of code several number of times.

 For such situations , Python provides the concept of loop

 A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group

of statements multiple times
 Iterative Statements

 The 2 popular loops provided by Python are:

 The while Loop

 The for Loop

 Recall that Python doesn’t provide any do..while loop

like other languages
 The while Loop

 Syntax:
while condition:
<indented statement 1>
<indented statement 2>
...
<indented statement n>
<non-indented statement 1>
<non-indented statement 2>
 Some Important Points:
 First the condition is evaluated. If the condition is true then statements in the while block
is executed.

 After executing statements in the while block the condition is checked again and if it is still
true, then the statements inside the while block is executed again.

 The statements inside the while block will keep executing until the condition is true.

 Each execution of the loop body is known as iteration.

 When the condition becomes false loop terminates and program control comes out of the
while loop to begin the execution of statement following it.
 Examples

• Example 1: • Example 2:
i=1
i=1
total=0
while i<=10: while i<=10:
print(i) print(i)
i=i+1 total+=i
print("done!") i=i+1
print("sum is
• Output: {0}".format(total))
• Output:
 Guess The Output

i=1 i=1
while i<=10:
while i<=10:
print(i)
print(i) total+=i
i=i+1 i=i+1
print("done!") print("sum is
{0}".format(total))
• Output:
• Output:
 Another Form Of
“while” Loop

 In Python , just like we have an else with if , similarly we

also can have an else part with the while loop.

 The statements in the else part are executed, when the

condition is not fulfilled anymore.
 Another Form Of
“while” Loop

 Syntax:
while condition:
<indented statement 1>
<indented statement 2>
...
<indented statement n>
else:
<indented statement 1>
<indented statement 2>
 Some Important Points:
 Many programmer’s have a doubt that If the statements of the additional else part
were placed right after the while loop without an else, they would have been
executed anyway, wouldn't they.

 Then what is the use of else

 To understand this , we need to understand the break statement,

 The “break” Statement

 Normally a while loop ends only when the test condition

in the loop becomes false.

 However , with the help of a break statement a while loop

can be left prematurely,

Now comes the crucial

point:
If a loop is left by
break,
the else part is not
executed.
 Example

• Example 1: • Example 2:
i=1
i=1 while i<=10:
while i<=10: print(i)
if(i==5): i=i+1
break else:
print("bye")
print(i)
i=i+1
else: Output:
print("bye")
Output:
 Exercise

 You have to develop a number guessing game. The program

will generate a random integer secretly. Now it will ask the user
to guess that number . If the user guessed it correctly then the
program prints “Congratulations! You guessed it right” .

 If the number guessed by the user is larger than the secret

number then program should print “Number too large” and ,
if the number guessed by the user is smaller than the secret
number then program should print “Number too small” .

 This should continue until the user guesses the number correctly
or quits . If the user wants to quit in between he will have to type
0 or negative number
 How To Generate
Random Number ?

 In Python , we have a module named random .

 This module contains a function called randint() , which

accepts 2 arguments and returns a random number
between them.

import random
a=random.randint(1,20)
print("Random number is",a)

Output:
 Solution

import random
secretno=random.randint(1,100)
guess=secretno+1
while guess!=secretno:
guess=int(input("Guess the secret number:"))
if(guess<=0):
print("So Sorry! That you are quitting!")
break;
elif(guess>secretno):
print("Your guess is too large. Try again!")
elif(guess<secretno):
print("Your guess is too small. Try again!")
else:
print("Congratulations! You guessed it right!")
Output
Output
 The “continue” Statement

 The continue statement in Python returns the control to

the beginning of the while loop.

 It rejects all the remaining statements in the current

iteration of the loop and moves the control back to the top
of the loop.
 Example

i=0
while i<10:
i=i+1
if(i%2!=0):
continue
print(i)
Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to accept a string from the user and

display it vertically but don’t display the vowels in it.

 Sample Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to continuously accept integers from the

user until the user types 0 and as soon as 0 is entered
display sum of all the nos entered before 0
 Sample Output:
 Exercise

 Modify the previous code so that if the user inputs negative

integer , your program should ignore it .

 Sample Output:
 The “pass” Statement

 In Python, the pass statement is a no operation

statement.

 That is , nothing happens when pass statement is executed.

 Example:
 Example

i=0
while i<10:
i=i+1
if(i%2!=0):
pass
else:
print(i)
Output:
 PYTHON
LECTURE 19
 Today’s Agenda

• The for Loop

• The for Loop In Python

• Differences with other languages

• The range( ) Function

• Using for with range( )

 The for Loop

 Like the while loop the for loop also is a programming

language statement, i.e. an iteration statement, which
allows a code block to be executed multiple number of
times.

 There are hardly programming languages without for

loops, but the for loop exists in many different flavours, i.e.
both the syntax and the behaviour differs from language to
language
 The for Loop

 Different Flavors Of “for” Loop:

 Count-controlled for loop (Three-expression for
loop):
 This is by far the most common type. This statement is the one used by C
, C++ and Java . Generally it has the form:
for (i=1; i <= 10; i++)
This kind of for loop is not implemented in Python!

 Numeric Ranges
 This kind of for loop is a simplification of the previous kind. Starting
with a start value and counting up to an end value, like
 for i = 1 to 100
Python doesn't use this either.
 The for Loop

 Iterator-based for loop

 Finally, we come to the one used by Python. This kind of a for loop
iterates over a collection of items. In each iteration step a loop variable is
set to a value in a sequence or other data collection.

 This kind of for loop is known in most Unix and Linux shells
and it is the one which is implemented in Python.
 Syntax Of for Loop
In Python

 Syntax:
for some_var in some_collection:
# loop body
<indented statement 1>
<indented statement 2>
...
<indented statement n>
<non-indented statement 1>
<non-indented statement 2>
 Some Important Points:
 The for loop in Python can iterate over string , list, tuple ,
set,frozenset, bytes,bytearray and dictionary
 The first item in the collection is assigned to the loop variable.
 Then the block is executed.
 Then again the next item of collection is assigned to the loop
variable, and the statement(s) block is executed
 This goes on until the entire collection is exhausted.
 Examples

• Example 1: • Example 2:
word="Sachin" fruits=["Apple","Banana",
for ch in word: "Guava","Orange"]
for fruit in fruits:
print(ch) print(fruit)

Output: • Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program using for loop to accept a string

from the user and display it vertically but don’t
display the vowels in it.

 Sample Output:
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

1. What is the output ?

word="sachin"
if(ch in ["a","e","i","o","u"]):
continue
print(ch,end=" ")

A. schn
B. Error
C. sachin
D. Exception

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

2. What is the output?

i=0
while i<4:
i=i+1
if(i%2!=0):
pass
print("hi",end=" ")
else:
print(i,end=" ")

A. hi 2 hi 4
B. Syntax Error
C. 24
D. Infinite loop

Correct Answer: A
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

3. What is the output?

i=0
while i<4:
i=i+1
if(i%2!=0):
continue
print("hi",end=" ")
else:
print(i,end=" ")

A. hi 2 hi 4
B. Syntax Error
C. 24
D. Infinite loop

Correct Answer: C
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

4. What is the output?

i=0
while i<4:
i=i+1
if(i%2!=0):
break
print("hi",end=" ")
else:
print(i,end=" ")

A. hi 2 hi 4
B. Syntax Error
C. 24
D. No output

Correct Answer: D
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

5. What is the output ?

x = 123
for i in x:
print(i)

A. 123
B. 1
2
3
C. TypeError
D. Infinite loop

Correct Answer: C
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

6. What is the output ?

i=1
while True:
if i%3 == 0:
break
print(i,end=“ “)
i+=1
A. Syntax Error
B. 1 2
C. 1 2 3
D. Blank Screen(No Output)

Correct Answer: A
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

7. What is the output ?

i=1
while True:
if i%2 == 0:
break
print(i,end=“ “)
i += 2
A. 1
B. 1 2
C. Infinite loop
D. Syntax Error

Correct Answer: C
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

8. What is the output ?

x = "abcdef"
i = "i"
while i in x:
print(i, end=" ")

A. abcdef
B. iiiiii
C. Error
D. No output

Correct Answer: D
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

9. What is the output ?

x = "abcdef"
i = “a"
while i in x:
print(i, end=" ")

A. abcdef
B. Infinite loop
C. Error
D. No output

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

10. What is the output ?

x = "abcdef"
i = "a"
while i in x:
x = x[1:]
print(i, end = " ")

A. aaaaaa
B. a
C. Error
D. No output

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

11. What is the output ?

x = 'abcd'
for i in x:
print(i,end=“ “)
x.upper()

A. aBCD
B. ABCD
C. abcd
D. Syntax Error

Correct Answer: C
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

12. What is the output ?

x = 'abcd'
for i in x:
print(i.upper())

A. aBCD
B. ABCD
C. abcd
D. Syntax Error

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

13. What is the output ?

text = "my name is sachin"
for i in text:
print (i, end=", ")

A. my,name,is,sachin,
B. m,y, ,n,a,m,e, ,i,s, ,s,a,c,h,i,n
C. Syntax Error
D. No output

Correct Answer: B
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

14. What is the output ?

text = "my name is sachin"
for i in text.split():
print (i, end=", ")

A. my,name,is,sachin,
B. m,y,n,a,m,e,i,s,s,a,c,h,i,n
C. Syntax Error
D. No output

Correct Answer: A
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

15. What is the output ?

text = "my name is sachin"
for i not in text:
print (i, end=", ")

A. my,name,is,sachin,
B. m,y,n,a,m,e,i,s,s,a,c,h,i,n
C. Syntax Error
D. No output

Correct Answer: C
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

16. What is the output?

True = False
while True:
print(True)
break

A. True
B. False
C. No output(Blank Screen)
D. None of the above

Correct Answer: D
 QUIZ- Test Your Skills

17. What is the output?

i=2
while True:
if i%3 == 0:
break
print(i,end=“ “)
i += 2

A. Infinite loop
B. 24
C. 23
D. None of the above

Correct Answer: B
 The range Function

 The range() function is an in-built function in Python,

and it returns a range object.

 This function is very useful to generate a sequence of

numbers in the form of a List.

 The range( ) function takes 1 to 3 arguments

 The range Function
With One Parameter

 Syntax:
 range(n)

 For an argument n, the function returns a range object

containing integer values from 0 to n-1.

Example:
a=range(10) As we can see that when we display
the variable a , we get to see the description
print(a) of the range object and not the values.
Output:
To see the values , we must convert
range object to list
 The range Function
With One Parameter

Example: The function list( ) accepts a range object

and converts it into a list of values .
a=range(10) These values are the numbers from 0 to n-1
where n is the argument passed to the function
b=list(a) range()
print(b)
Output:
 What If We Pass
Negative Number ?

Guess: The output is an empty list denoted by

[ ] and it tells us that the function range( )
a=range(-10) is coded in such a way that it always moves
towards right side of the start value which here
b=list(a) is 0.
print(b)
But since -10 doesn’t come towards right of 0, so
Output: the output is an empty list
 The range Function
With Two Parameter

 Syntax:
 range(m,n)

 For an argument m,n , the function returns a range object

containing integer values from m to n-1.

Example:
a=range(1,10) Here again when we display
the variable a , we get to see the description
print(a) of the range object and not the values.
Output: So we must use the function list( ) to get
the values
 The range Function
With Two Parameter

Example: The output is list of numbers from 1 to 9

because 10 falls towards right of 1
a=range(1,10)
b=list(a)
print(b)
Output:
 What If We Pass
First Number Greater?

Guess: The output is an empty list because

as mentioned earlier it traverses towards right
a=range(10,1) of start value and 1 doesn’t come
to the right of 10
b=list(a)
print(b)
Output:
 Passing Negative Values

 We can pass negative start or/and negative stop value

to range( ) when we call it with 2 arguments .

Example:
a=range(-10,3) Since 3 falls on right of -10 ,
so we are getting range of numbers from
b=list(a) -10 to 3
print(b)

Output:
 Guess The Output

a=range(-10,-3) a=range(-3,-3)
b=list(a) b=list(a)
print(b)
print(b)
 Output: Output:

a=range(-3,-10)
b=list(a)
print(b)
 Output:
 The range Function
With Three Parameter

 Syntax:
 range(m,n,s)
 Finally, the range() function can also take the third
parameter . This is for the step value.
Example:
a=range(1,10,2)
b=list(a) Since step value is 2 , so we got nos
print(b) from 1 to 9 with a difference of 2

Output:
 Guess The Output

a=range(7,1,-2) Pay close attention

, that we are having
b=list(a) start value greater
print(b) than end value , but
since step value is
 Output: negative , so it is
allowed

a=range(5,10,20) Here, note that the

b=list(a) first integer, 5, is
always returned,
print(b) even though the
Output: interval 20 sends it
beyond 10
 Guess The Output

a=range(2,14,1.5) Note that all three

arguments must be
b=list(a) integers only.
print(b)
 Output:

a=range(5,10,0)
It raised a
b=list(a) ValueError because
print(b) the interval cannot
be zero if we need
Output: to go from one
number to another.
 Guess The Output

a=range(2,12) The default value of

b=list(a) step is 1 , so the
output is from 2 to
print(b) 11
 Output:

a=range(12,2)
b=list(a) As usual , since the
start value is
print(b) greater than end
value so we get an
Output:
empty list
 Using range( ) With for Loop

 We can use range() and for together for iterating through

a list of numeric values

 Syntax:
 for <var_name> in range(end)
indented statement 1
indented statement 2
.
.
indented statement n
 Example

Code:
for i in range(11):
print(i)
Output:
 Using 2 Parameter
range( ) With for Loop

 We can use 2 argument range() with for also for iterating

through a list of numeric values between a given range

 Syntax:
 for <var_name> in range(start,end)
indented statement 1
indented statement 2
.
.
indented statement n
 Example

Code:
for i in range(1,11):
print(i)
Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to accept an integer from the user

and display the sum of all the numbers from 1 to
that number.

 Sample Output:
 Solution

num=int(input("Enter an int:"))
total=0
for i in range(1,num+1):
total=total+i
print("sum of nos from 1 to {} is {}".format(num,total))
 Exercise

 Write a program to accept an integer from the user

and calculate it’s factorial

 Sample Output:
 Using 3 Parameter
range( ) With for Loop

 Syntax:
 for <var_name> in range(start,end,step)
indented statement 1
indented statement 2
.
.
indented statement n
 Example

Code:
for i in range(1,11,2):
print(i)
Output:
 Example

Code:
for i in range(100,0,-10):
print(i)
Output:
 Using for With else

 Just like while , the for loop can also have an else part ,
which executes if no break statements executes in the for
loop

 Syntax:
for <var_name> in some_seq:
indented statement 1
if test_cond:
break
else:
indented statement 3
indented statement 4
 Example

Code: Output:

for i in range(10):
print(i)
else:
print(“Loop complete”)
 Example

Code: Output:

for i in range(1,10):
print(i)
if i%5==0:
break
else:
print(“Loop complete”)
 Using Nested Loop

 Loops can be nested in Python, as they can with other

programming languages.

 A nested loop is a loop that occurs within another loop, and are
constructed like so:

 Syntax:
for <var_name> in some_seq:
for <var_name> in some_seq:
indented statement 1
indented statement 2
.
.
indented statement n
unindented statement
unindented statement
 Example

Code: Output:
numbers = [1, 2, 3]
alpha = ['a', 'b', 'c']
for n in numbers:
print(n)
for ch in alpha:
print(ch)
 Exercise

 Write a program to print the following pattern

Sample Output:
 Solution

Code: Output:
for i in range(1,5):
for j in range(1,4):
print("*",end="")
print()
 Solution

Can you write the same code using only

single loop ? Output:

Code:
for i in range(1,5):
print("*"*3)
 Exercise

 Write a program to print the following pattern

Sample Output:
 Solution

Code: Output:
for i in range(1,5):
for j in range(1,i+1):
print("*",end="")
print()
 Exercise

 Write a program to print the following pattern

Sample Output:
 Solution

Code: Output:
for i in range(4,0,-1):
for j in range(1,i+1):
print("*",end="")
print()
 Exercise

 Write a program to accept an integer from the user

and display all the numbers from 1 to that number.
Repeat the process until the user enters 0.
 Sample Output:
 Solution

Code: Output:
x = int(input('Enter a number: '))
while x != 0:
for y in range (1, x+1):
print (y)
y+=1
x = int(input('Enter a number: '))
 PYTHON
LECTURE 20
 Today’s Agenda

• User Defined Functions

• What Is A Function ?

• Function V/s Method

• Steps Required For Developing User Defined Function

• Calling A Function

• Returning Values From Function

 What Is A Function ?

 A function in Python is a collection of statements

having a particular name followed by parenthesis .

 To run a function , we have to call it and when we call a

function all the statements inside the function are
executed.

 So we don’t have to write the code again and again

 This is called code re-usability.

 Function V/s Method

 Functions are block of codes defined individually .

 But if a function is defined inside a class , it becomes a

method

 So , methods and functions are same except their

placement in the program.

 Also we can call a function directly using it’s name but

when we call a method we have to use either object
name or class name before it
 Function V/s Method

For example:
 print(“hello”)

 Here print( ) is a function as we are calling it directly

 message=“Good Morning”
 print(message.lower())

 Here lower( ) is a method which belongs to the class str

and so it is called using the object message
 Steps Required For Function

 To create and use a function we have to take 2 steps:

 Function Definition: Creating or writing the body of a

function is called defining it. It contains the set of
statements we want to run , when the function execute.

 Function Call: A function never runs automatically . So to

execute it’s statements we must call it
 Syntax Of Function Definition

def function_name(param 1,param 2, . . .):

statement(s)

 Keyword def marks the start of function header.

 It is followed by a function name to uniquely identify it.

 Parameters (arguments) through which we pass values to a

function. They are optional.

 A colon (:) to mark the end of function header.

 One or more valid python statements that make up the

function body . All the statements must have same indentation
level
 Example Of
Function Definition

def add(a,b):
print("Values are",a,"and",b)
c=a+b
print("Their sum is",c)
 How To Call A Function ?

 Once we have defined a function, we can call it from

another function, program or even the Python
prompt.

 To call a function we simply type the function name with

appropriate parameters.

 Syntax:

 function_name(arguments)
 Complete Example

def add(a,b):
print("Values are",a,"and",b)
c=a+b
print("Their sum is",c)
add(5,10)
add(2.5,5.4)

Output:
 Returning Values
From Function

 To return a value or values from a function we have to write

the keyword return at the end of the function body along
with the value(s) to be returned

 Syntax:

 return <expression>
 Complete Example

def add(a,b):
c=a+b
return c
x=add(5,10)
print("Sum of 5 and 10 is",x)
y=add(2.5,5.4)
print("Sum of 2.5 and 5.4 is",y)
Output:
 Exercise

 Write a function called absolute( ) to accept an

integer as argument and return it’s absolute value.
Finally call it to get the absolute value of -7 and 9

 Sample Output:
 Solution

def absolute(n):
if n>0:
return n
else:
return -n

x=absolute(-7)
print("absolute of -7 is",x)
y=absolute(9)
print("absolute of 9 is",y)
 Exercise

 Write a function called factorial( ) which accepts a

number as argument and returns it’s factorial.
Finally call the function to calculate and return the
factorial of the number given by the user.

 Sample Output:
 Solution

def factorial(n):
f=1
while n>1:
f=f*n
n=n-1
return f

x=int(input("Enter an int:"))
y=factorial(x)
print("Factorial of",x,"is",y)
 Guess The Output

def greet(name):
print("Hello",name)

greet("sachin")
greet()

Output:
 Guess The Output

def greet(name):
print("Hello",name)

greet("sachin", "amit")

Output:
 Guess The Output

def greet(name):
print("Hello",name)
return
print("bye")

greet("sachin")

Output:
 Guess The Output

def greet(name):
print("Hello",name)

x=greet("sachin")
print("value in x is",x)

Output:
 Returning Multiple Values
From Function

 In languages like C or Java , a function can return only one

value . However in Python , a function can return
multiple values using the following syntax:

 Syntax:
 return <value 1, value 2, value 3, . . . >

 For example:
 return a,b,c

 When we do this , Python returns these values as a tuple,

which just like a list is a collection of multiple values.
 Receiving Multiple Values

 To receive multiple values returned from a function , we have 2

options:

 Syntax 1:
 var 1,var 2,var 3=<function_name>()

 Syntax 2:
 var=<function_name>()

 In the first case we are receiving the values in individual variables

. Their data types will be set according to the types of values being
returned

 In the second case we are receiving it in a single variable and

Python will automatically make the data type of this variable as tuple
 Complete Example

def calculate(a,b):
Here Python will
c=a+b automatically set x
d=a-b and y to be of int
type and z to be of
return c,d tuple type
x,y=calculate(5,3)
print("Sum is",x,"and difference is",y)
z=calculate(15,23)
print("Sum is",z[0],"and difference is",z[1])
Output:
 PYTHON
LECTURE 21
 Today’s Agenda

• User Defined Functions-II

• Arguments V/s Parameters

• Types Of Arguments
 Parameters V/s Arguments?

 A lot of people—mix up parameters and arguments,

although they are slightly different.

 A parameter is a variable in a method definition.

 When a method is called, the arguments are the data we

pass into the method's parameters.
Parameters V/s Arguments?
 Types Of Arguments

 In Python , a function can have 4 types of arguments:

 Positional Argument

 Keyword Argument

 Default Argument

 Variable Length Argument

 Positional Arguments

 These are the arguments passed to a function in correct

positional order.

 Here the number of arguments in the call must exactly

match with number of parameters in the function
definition
 Positional Arguments

def attach(s1,s2):
s3=s1+s2 These are called
print("Joined String is:",s3)
POSITIONAL
ARGUMENTS
attach("Good","Evening")

Output:
 Positional Arguments

 If the number of arguments in call do not match with

the number of parameters in function then we get
TypeError:

def attach(s1,s2):
s3=s1+s2
print("Joined String is:",s3)

attach("Good")
Output:
 Guess The Output

def grocery(name,price):
print("Item is",name,"It's price is",price)

grocery("Bread",20)
grocery(150,"Butter")

Output:
 The Problem With
Positional Arguments

 The problem with positional arguments is that they

always bind to the position of parameters.

 So 1st argument will be copied to 1st parameter , 2nd

argument will be copied to 2nd parameter and so on.

 Due to this in the previous example the value 150 was

copied to name and “Butter” was copied to price

 To solve this problem , Python provides us the concept of

keyword arguments
 Keyword Arguments

 Keyword arguments are arguments that identify

parameters with their names

 With keyword arguments in Python, we can change the

order of passing the arguments without any consequences

 Syntax:
function_name(paramname1=value,paramname2=value)
 Complete Example

def grocery(name,price):
print("Item is",name,"It's price is",price)

grocery(name="Bread",price=20)
grocery(price=150,name="Butter")

Output:
 Point To Remember!

 A positional argument can never follow a keyword

argument i.e. the keyword argument should always appear
after positional argument

 For example:
 def display(num1,num2):
 # some code

Now if we call the above function as:

display(10,num2=15)
Then it will be correct. But if we call it as:
display(num1=10,15)
Then it will be a Syntax Error
 Default Arguments

 For some functions, we may want to make some

parameters optional and use default values in case the user
does not want to provide values for them.

 This is done with the help of default argument values.

 We can specify default argument values for parameters by

appending to the parameter name in the function definition the
assignment operator (=) followed by the default value.

 Syntax:
def function_name(paramname1=value,paramname2=value):
# function body
 Complete Example

def greet(name,msg="Good Morning"):

print("Hello",name,msg)

greet("Sachin")
greet("Amit","How are you?")

Output:
 Point To Remember!

 A function can have any number of default arguments

but t once we have a default argument, all the arguments to
it’s right must also have default values.

 This means to say, non-default arguments cannot

follow default arguments.
 Point To Remember!

 For example: if we had defined the function header

above as:

def greet(msg = "Good morning!", name):

 Then we would have got the following SyntaxError

 Point To Remember!

 If a function has default arguments , set then while calling it if we are

skipping an argument then we must skip all the arguments after it
also.
 For example: The solution to this problem
def show(a=10,b=20,c=30): is to use default argument as
print(a,b,c) keyword argument :

 Now , if we call the above function as : show(5,c=7)

show(5) This will give the output as
 It will work and output will be 5 20 30 5 20 7

 If we call it as :
show(5,7)
 Still it will work and output will be 5 7 30
 But if we call it as
show(5, ,7)
 Then it will be an error
 Exercise

 Write a function called cal_area( ) using default

argument concept which accepts radius and pi as
arguments and calculates and displays area of the Circle.
The value of pi should be used as default argument and
value of radius should be accepted from the user
 Solution

def cal_area(radius,pi=3.14):
area=pi*radius**2
print("Area of circle with radius",radius,"is",area)

rad=int(input("Enter radius:"))
cal_area(rad)
 Guess The Output ?

def addnos(a,b):
c=a+b
return c

def addnos(a,b,c):
d=a+b+c
return d
print(addnos(10,20))
print(addnos(10,20,30))
Output:
 Why Did The Error Occur ?

 The error occurred because Python does not support

Function or Method Overloading

 Moreover Python understands the latest definition

of a function addnos( ) which takes 3 arguments

 Now since we passed 2 arguments only , the call

generated error because Python tried to call the method
with 3 arguments
 Solution

 The solution to this problem is a technique called variable

length arguments

 In this technique , we define the function in such a way that

it can accept any number of arguments from 0 to infinite
 Syntax Of
Variable Length Arguments

def <function_name>(* <arg_name>):

Function body

 As we can observe , to create a function with variable

length arguments we simply prefix the argument name
with an asterisk.
 For example:
def addnos(*a):
 The function addnos() can now be called with as many
number of arguments as we want and all the arguments
will be stored inside the argument a which will be internally
treated as tuple
 Complete Example

def addnos(*a):
sum =0
for x in a:
sum=sum+x
return sum

print(addnos(10,20))
print(addnos(10,20,30))
Output:
 Exercise

 Write a function called find_largest( ) which accepts

multiple strings as argument and returns the length of the
largest string
 Solution

def findlargest(*names):
max=0
for s in names:
if len(s)>max:
max=len(s)
return max
print(findlargest("January","February","March"))

Output:
 Exercise

 Modify the previous example so that the function

find_largest( ) now returns the largest string itself and
not it’s length
 Solution

def findlargest(*names):
max=0
largest=""
for s in names:
if len(s)>max:
max=len(s)
largest=s
return largest
print(findlargest("January","February","March"))
Output:
 Point To Remember!

 A function cannot have 2 variable length arguments. So the

following is wrong:

def addnos(*a,*b):
 Point To Remember!

 If we have any other argument along with variable length

argument , then it should be set before the variable
length argument
def addnos(n,*a):
sum =n
for x in a:
sum=sum+x
return sum
print(addnos(10,20,30))
print(addnos(10,20,30,40))
 Point To Remember!

 If we set the other argument used with variable length

argument , after the variable length argument then
while calling it , we must pass it as keyword
argument

def addnos(*a,n):
sum =n
for x in a:
sum=sum+x
return sum
print(addnos(20,30,n=10))
print(addnos(20,30,40,n=10))
 Guess The Output

def addnos(*a,n):
sum =n
for x in a:
sum=sum+x
return sum
print(addnos(20,n=10,30))

Output:
SyntaxError: Positional argument follows keyword argument
 Guess The Output

def show(a,b,c=3,d=4):
print(a,b,c,d)

show(10,20)

Output:
10 20 3 4
 Guess The Output

def show(a,b,c=3,d=4):
print(a,b,c,d)

show(10,20,30,40)

Output:
10 20 30 40
 Guess The Output

def show(a,b,c=3,d=4):
print(a,b,c,d)

show(d=10,a=20,b=30)

Output:
20 30 3 10
 Guess The Output

def show(a,b,c=3,d=4):
print(a,b,c,d)

show()

Output:
TypeError
 Guess The Output

def show(a,b,c=3,d=4):
print(a,b,c,d)

show(c=30,d=40,10,20)

Output:
SyntaxError
 Guess The Output

def show(a,b,c=3,d=4):
print(a,b,c,d)

show(30,40,b=15)

Output:
TypeError : got multiple values for argument ‘b’
 PYTHON
LECTURE 22
 Today’s Agenda

• User Defined Functions-III

• Variable Scope

• Local Scope

• Global Scope

• Argument Passing
 Variable Scopes

 The scope of a variable refers to the places from where we

can see or access a variable.

 In Python , there are 4 types of scopes:

 Local : Inside a function body
 Enclosing: Inside an outer function’s body . We will discuss it
later
 Global: At the module level
 Built In: At the interpreter level

 In short we pronounce it as LEGB

 Global Variable

 GLOBAL VARIABLE

 A variable which is defined in the main body of a file is called

a global variable.

 It will be visible throughout the file

 Local Variable

 LOCAL VARIABLE
 A variable which is defined inside a function is local to that function.

 It is accessible from the point at which it is defined until the end of the
function.

 It exists for as long as the function is executing.

 Even the parameter in the function definition behave like local

variables

 When we use the assignment operator (=) inside a function,

it’s default behaviour is to create a new local variable – unless
a variable with the same name is already defined in the local
scope.
 Example

s = "I love Python"

Since the variable s
def f(): is global , we can
print(s) access it from
anywhere in our
f() code

Output:
I love Python
 Example

s = "I love Python" Since we have not

def f(): called the function
f( ) , so the
print(s) statement print(s)
will never get a
chance to run
Output:
 Example

def f():
print(s)
s = "I love Python"
f()
Even though the
variable s has been
Output: declared after the
function f( ) , still it is
I love Python considered to be
global and can be
accessed from
anywhere in our code
 Example

def f():
print(s)
f()
s="I love Python"

Since we have called

Output: the function f( ) ,
before declaring
NameError ! variable s , so we get
NameError!
 Example

def f():
s="I love Python"
print(s)
f()
The variable s now
becomes a local
Output: variable and a
function can easily
I love Python access all the local
variables inside it’s
definition
 Example

def f():
s="I love Python"
print(s)
f()
print(s)
The variable s is local
Output: and cannot be
accessed from outside
I love Python it’s function’s
NameError! definition
 Example

s="I love Python"

def f():
s="I love C"
print(s)
If a variable with
f() same name is defined
print(s) inside the scope of
function as well then
Python creates a new
variable in local scope
Output: of the function and
I love C uses it
I love Python
 Example

What if we want to use the same global variable

inside the function also ?
s="I love Python"
def f():
global s To do this , we need a
s="I love C" special keyword in
print(s) Python called global.
This keyword tells
f() Python , not to create
print(s) any new variable ,
rather use the variable
from global scope
Output:
I love C
I love C
 Guess The Output ?

s="I love Python"

def f():
print(s) Now , this is a special case! .
In Python any variable
s="I love C" which is changed or created
print(s) inside of a function is local,
if it hasn't been declared as
f() a global variable. To tell
Python, that we want to use
print(s) the global variable, we have
to explicitly state this by
using the keyword "global"
Output:
UnboundLocalError!:
Local variable s referenced before assignment
 Guess The Output ?

s="I love Python"

def f():
global s
print(s)
s="I love C"
print(s)
f()
print(s)

Output:
I love Python
I love C
I love C
 Guess The Output ?

a=1
Output:
def f():
print ('Inside f() : ', a)
global : 1
def g(): inside f( ):1
a=2 global: 1
print ('Inside g() : ',a) inside g( ): 2
def h(): global : 1
global a inside h( ): 3
a=3 global : 3
print ('Inside h() : ',a)

print ('global : ',a)

f()
print ('global : ',a)
g()
print ('global : ',a)
h()
print ('global : ',a)
 Guess The Output ?

a=0 Output:
if a == 0: 7
3
b=1 0
def my_function(c): 1
NameError!
d=3
print(c)
print(d)
my_function(7)
print(a)
print(b)
print(c)
print(d)
 Guess The Output ?

def foo(x, y): Output:

global a 42 17 4 17
42 15 3 4
a = 42
x,y = y,x
b = 33
b = 17
c = 100
print(a,b,x,y)

a, b, x, y = 1, 15, 3,4
foo(17, 4)
print(a, b, x, y)
 Argument Passing

 There are two ways to pass arguments/parameters to

function calls in C programming:

 Call by value

 Call by reference.
 Call By Value

 In Call by value, original value is not modified.

 In Call by value, the value being passed to the function is

locally stored by the function parameter as formal
argument

 So , if we change the value of formal argument, it is

changed for the current function only.

 These changes are not reflected in the actual argument’s

value
 Call By Reference

 In Call by reference , the location (address) of actual

argument is passed to formal arguments, hence any
change made to formal arguments will also reflect in actual
arguments.

 In Call by reference, original value is

modified because we pass reference (address).
 What About Python ?

 When asked whether Python function calling model is

"call-by-value" or "call-by-reference", the correct
answer is: neither.

 What Python uses , is actually called "call-by-object-

reference"
 A Quick Recap Of Variables

 We know that everything in Python is an object.

 All numbers , strings , lists , tuples etc in Python are

objects.

 Now , recall , what happens when we write the following

statement in Python:
x=10

 An object is created in heap , storing the value 10 and x

becomes the reference to that object.
 A Quick Recap Of Variables

 Also we must recall that in Python we have 2 types of data

: mutable and immutable.

 Mutable types are those which do not allow modification

in object’s data and examples are int , float , string ,tuple
etc

 Immutable types are those which allow us to modify

object’s data and examples are list and dictionary
 What Is
Call By Object Reference ?

 Now , when we pass immutable arguments like integers,

strings or tuples to a function, the passing acts like call-
by-value.

 The object reference is passed to the function

parameters.

 They can't be changed within the function, because they

can't be changed at all, i.e. they are immutable.
 What Is
Call By Object Reference ?

 It's different, if we pass mutable arguments.

 They are also passed by object reference, but they can

be changed in place in the function.

 If we pass a list to a function, elements of that list can be

changed in place, i.e. the list will be changed even in the
caller's scope.
 Guess The Output ?

def show(a):
print("Inside show , a is",a," It's id is",id(a))
Since Python uses Pass by
object reference , so when
a=10 we passed a , Python
passed the address of the
print("Outside show, a is",a,"object
It'spointed
id is",id(a))
by a and this
address was received by
show(a) the formal variable a in the
function’s argument list. So
both the references are
Output: pointing to the same object
 Guess The Output ?

def show(mynumbers):
print("Inside show , mynumbers is",mynumbers)
mynumbers.append(40)
print("Inside show , mynumbers is",mynumbers)
Since list is a mutable type ,
mynumbers=[10,20,30] so any change made in the
formal reference
print("Before calling show, mynumbers a does not
is",mynumbers)
create a new object in
show(mynumbers) memory . Rather it changes
the data
print("After calling show, mynumbers stored in original
is",mynumbers)
list

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

def show(mynumbers):
mynumbers=[50,60,70]
print("Inside show , mynumbers is",mynumbers)
If we create a new
mynumbers=[10,20,30] object inside the
print("Before calling show, mynumbers is",mynumbers)
function , then Python
will make the formal
show(mynumbers) reference mynumbers
print("After calling show, mynumbers refer
is",mynumbers))
to that new object
but the actual
argument mynumbers ,
Output: will still be refering to
the actual object
 Guess The Output ?

def increment(a):
a=a+1
a=10 When we pass n to
increment(n), the function
increment(a) has the local variable n referring
to the same object. Since integer
print(a) is immutable, so Python is not
able to modify the object’s
value to 11 in place and thus it
created a new object. But the
original variable n is still
Output: referring to the same object
with the value 10
10
 Guess The Output ?

def swap(a,b):
a,b=b,a
a=10
b=20
swap(a,b)
print(a)
print(b)

Output:
10
20
 Guess The Output ?

def changetoupper(s):
s=s.upper()
s="bhopal"
changetoupper(s)
print(s)

Output:
bhopal
 Guess The Output ?

def changetoupper(s):
s=s.upper()
return s
s="bhopal"
s=changetoupper(s)
print(s)

Output:
BHOPAL
 PYTHON
LECTURE 23
 Today’s Agenda

• User Defined Functions-IV

• Anonymous Functions OR Lambda Function
 What Are Anonymous
Functions ?

 An anonymous function is a function that is defined

without a name.

 While normal functions are defined using

the def keyword, we define anonymous functions using
the lambda keyword.

 Hence, anonymous functions are also called lambda

functions.
 Syntax Of Lambda Functions

 Syntax:
lambda [arg1,arg2,..]:[expression]

 lambda is a keyword/operator and can have any number of arguments.

 But it can have only one expression.

 Python evaluates the expression and returns the result automatically.

 What Is An Expression ?

 An expression here is anything that can return some

value.

 The following items qualify as expressions.

 Arithmetic operations like a+b and a**b

 Function calls like sum(a,b)

 A print statement like print(“Hello”)

 So, What Can Be Written In
Lambda Expression ?

 Assignment statements cannot be used in lambda ,

because they don’t return anything, not even None (null).

 Simple things such as mathematical operations, string

operations etc. are OK in a lambda.

 Function calls are expressions, so it’s OK to put a function call

in a lambda, and to pass arguments to that function.

 Even functions that return None, like the print function in

Python 3, can be used in a lambda.

 Single line if – else is also allowed as it also evaluates the

condition and returns the result of true or false expression
 How To Create
Lambda Functions ?

 Suppose, we want to make a function which will

calculate sum of two numbers.

 In normal approach we will do as shown below:

def add(a,b):
return a+b

 In case of lambda function we will write it as:

lambda a,b: a+b

 Why To Create
Lambda Functions ?

 A very common doubt is that when we can define our

functions using def keyword , then why we require
lambda functions ?

 The most common use for lambda functions is in code

that requires a simple one-line function, where it would
be an overkill to write a complete normal function.

 We will explore it in more detail when we will discuss two

very important functions in Python called map( ) and
filter( )
 How To Use
Lambda Functions ?

 There are 2 ways to use a Lambda Function.

 Using it anonymously in inline mode

 Using it by assigning it to a variable

 How To Use
Lambda Functions ?

 Using it as anonymous function

print((lambda a,b: a+b)(2,3))

Output:
 How To Use
Lambda Functions ?

 Using it by assigning it to a variable

What is happening in this code ?

sum=lambda a,b: a+b
The statement lambda a,b:a+b ,
is creating a FUNCTION OBJECT
print(sum(2,3)) and returning that object . The
variable sum is referring to that
print(sum(5,9))
object. Now when we write
sum(2,3), it behaves like function
Output: call
 Guess The Output ?

sum=lambda a,b: a+b Since functions also are objects

in Python , so they have their a
unique memory address as well
print(type(sum)) as their corresponding class as
function
print(sum)

Output:
 Example

squareit=lambda a: a*a

print(squareit(25))
print(squareit(10))

Output:
 Example

import math
sqrt=lambda a: math.sqrt(a)

print(sqrt(25))
print(sqrt(10))

Output:
 Exercise

 Write a lambda function that returns the first

character of the string passed to it as argument

Solution:
firstchar=lambda str: str[0]

print(“First character of Bhopal :",firstchar("Bhopal"))

print(“First character of Sachin :",firstchar("Sachin"))

Output:
 Exercise

 Write a lambda function that returns the last

character of the string passed to it as argument

Solution:

lastchar=lambda str: str[len(str)-1]

print("Last character of Bhopal :",lastchar("Bhopal"))

print("Last character of Sachin :",lastchar("Sachin"))
Output:
 Exercise

 Write a lambda function that returns True or False

depending on whether the number passed to it as
argument is even or odd

Solution:

iseven=lambda n: n%2==0
print("10 is even :",iseven(10))
print("7 is even:",iseven(7))
Output:
 Exercise

 Write a lambda function that accepts 2 arguments

and returns the greater amongst them

Solution:

maxnum=lambda a,b: a if a>b else b

print("max amongst 10 and 20 :",maxnum(10,20))
print("max amongst 15 and 5 :",maxnum(15,5))

Output:
 PYTHON
LECTURE 24
 Today’s Agenda

• User Defined Functions V

• The map( ) Function
• The filter( ) Function
• Using map( ) and filter( ) with Lambda Expressions
 What Is map( ) Function?

 As we have mentioned earlier, the advantage of the lambda

operator can be seen when it is used in combination with the
map() function.

 map() is a function which takes two arguments:

 r = map(func, iterable)

 The first argument func is the name of a function and the

second argument , iterable ,should be a sequence (e.g. a list ,
tuple ,string etc) or anything that can be used with for loop.

 map() applies the function func to all the elements of the

sequence iterable
 What Is map( ) Function?

 To understand this , let’s solve a problem.

 Suppose we want to define a function called square( ) that

can accept a number as argument and returns it’s square.

 The definition of this function would be :

def square(num):
return num**2
 What Is map( ) Function?

 Now suppose we want to call this function for the following

list of numbers:

 mynums=[1,2,3,4,5]

 One way to do this , will be to use a for loop

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5]
for x in mynums:
print(square(x))
 Complete Code

def square(num):
return num**2

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5]
for x in mynums:
print(square(x))

Output:
1
4
9
16
25
 Using map( ) Function

 Another way to solve the previous problem is to use the

map( ) function .

 The map( ) function will accept 2 arguments from us.

 The first argument will be the name of the function square

 The second argument will be the list mynums.

 It will then apply the function square on every element of

mynum and return the corresponding result as map
object
 Previous Code Using map( )

def square(num):
return num**2

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5]
result=map(square,mynums)
print(result)
Output:

 As we can observe , the return value of map( ) function is a map

object

 To convert it into actual numbers we can pass it to the function list( )

 Previous Code Using map( )

def square(num): def square(num):

return num**2 return num**2

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5] mynums=[1,2,3,4,5]
result=map(square,mynums) # we can club the 2 lines in 1 line
sqrnum=list(result) sqrnum=list(map(square,mynums))
print(squrnum)
print(sqrnum)
Output:
 Previous Code Using map( )

To make it even shorter we can directly pass the list( ) function to

the function print()
def square(num):
return num**2

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5]
print(list(map(square,mynums)))

Output:
 Previous Code Using map( )

In case we want to iterate over this list , then we can use for loop
def square(num):
return num**2

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5]
for x in map(square,mynums):
print(x)

Output:
 Exercise

 Write a function called inspect( ) that accepts a

string as argument and returns the word EVEN if
the string is of even length and returns it’s first
character if the string is of odd length

Now call this function for first 3 month names

 Solution

def inspect(mystring):
if len(mystring)%2==0:
return "EVEN"
else:
return mystring[0]

months=["January","February","March"]
print(list(map(inspect,months)))

Output:
 What Is filter( ) Function?

 Like map( ) , filter( ) is also a function that is very commonly used in

Python .

 The function filter ( ) takes 2 arguments:

filter(function, sequence)

 The first argument should be a function which must return a boolean value

 The second argument should be a sequence of items.

 Now the function filter( ) applies the function passed as argument to

every item of the sequence passed as second argument.

 If the function returned True for that item , filter( ) returns that item
as part of it’s return value otherwise the item is not returned.
 What Is filter( ) Function?

 To understand this , let’s solve a problem.

 Suppose we want to define a function called

check_even( ) that can accept a number as argument
and return True if it is even , otherwise it should return
False

 The definition of this function would be :

def check_even(num):
return num%2==0
 What Is filter( ) Function?

 Now suppose we have a list of numbers and we want to

extract only even numbers from this list

 mynums=[1,2,3,4,5,6]

 One way to do this , will be to use a for loop

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5,6]
for x in mynums:
if check_even(x):
print(x)
 Complete Code

def check_even(num):
return num%2==0

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5,6]
for x in mynums:
if check_even(x):
print(x)

Output:
2
4
6
 Using filter( ) Function

 Another way to solve the previous problem is to use the filter( )

function .

 The flter( ) function will accept 2 arguments from us.

 The first argument will be the name of the function check_even

 The second argument will be the list mynums.

 It will then apply the function check_even on every element of

mynum and if check_even returned True for that element
then filter( ) will return that element as a part of it’s return
value otherwise that element will not be returned
 Previous Code Using filter( )

def check_even(num):
return num%2==0

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5,6]
print(filter(check_even,mynums))

Output:

 As we can observe , the return value of filter( ) function is a filter

object

 To convert it into actual numbers we can pass it to the function list( )

 Previous Code Using filter( )

def check_even(num):
return num%2==0

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5,6]
print(list(filter(check_even,mynums)))

Output:
 Previous Code Using filter( )

In case we want to iterate over this list , then we can use for loop
as shown below:
def check_even(num):
return num%2==0

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5,6]
for x in filter(check_even,mynums):
print(x)
Output:
 Guess The Output

def f1(num):
return num*num
Ideally , the function passed
to filter( ) should return a
mynums=[1,2,3,4,5] boolean value. But if it
print(list(filter(f1,mynums))) doesn’t return boolean value
, then whatever value it
returns Python converts it to
boolean . In our case for
Output: each value in mynums the
return value will be it’s
[1,2,3,4,5] square which is a non-zero
value and thus assumed to
be True. So all the elements
are returned by filter()
 Guess The Output

def f1(num):
return num%2
For every even number
mynums=[1,2,3,4,5] the return value of the
function f1( ) will be 0
print(list(filter(f1,mynums)))
which is assumed to be
False and for every odd
number the return value
Output: will be 1 which is
[1,3,5] assumed to be True .
Thus filter( ) returns only
those numbers for which
f1( ) has returned 1.
 Guess The Output

def f1(num):
print("Hello")
Hello is displayed 5 times
mynums=[1,2,3,4,5] because the filter( )
print(list(filter(f1,mynums))) function has called f1( )
function 5 times. Now for
Output:
each value in mynums ,
Hello since f1( ) has not
Hello returned any value , by
default it’s return value is
Hello
assumed to be None
Hello which is a representation
Hello of False. Thus filter( )
returned an empty list.
[]
 Guess The Output

def f1(num):
pass

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5] For each value in

mynums , since f1( ) has
print(list(filter(f1,mynums)))
not returned any value ,
Output: by default it’s return
value is assumed to be
[] None which is a
representation of False.
Thus filter( ) returned an
empty list.
 Guess The Output

def f1():
pass The function filter() is trying
to call f1( ) for every value in
the list mynums. But since
mynums=[1,2,3,4,5] f1( ) is a non-parametrized
print(list(filter(f1,mynums))) function , this call generates
TypeError

Output:
 Guess The Output

def f1():
pass

mynums=[]
print(list(filter(f1,mynums)))

Output:
[]
 Guess The Output

def f1(num):
return num%2

For every even number

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5] the return value of the
print(list(map(f1,mynums))) function f1( ) will be 0
and for every odd
number the return value
Output: will be 1. Thus map( ) has
returned a list containing
[1,0,1,o,1] 1 and 0 for each number
in mynums based upon
even and odd.
 Guess The Output

def f1(num):
pass Since f1( ) is not returning
anything , so it’s return
value by default is assumed
mynums=[1,2,3,4,5] to be None and because
map( ) has internally called
print(list(map(f1,mynums)))
f1 () 5 times , so the list
returned contains None 5
times

Output:
[ None,None,None,None ,None ]
 Guess The Output

def f1():
pass

mynums=[]
print(list(map(f1,mynums)))

Output:
[]
 Using Lambda Expression
With map( ) And filter( )

 The best use of Lambda Expression is to use it with

map( ) and filter( ) functions

 Recall that the keyword lambda creates an anonymous

function and returns it’s address.
 Using Lambda Expression
With map( ) And filter( )

 So , we can pass this lambda expression as first

argument to map( ) and filter() functions , since their
first argument is the a function object reference

 In this way , we wouldn’t be required to specially create a

separate function using the keyword def
 Using Lambdas With map( )

def square(num): To convert the above code using lambda

return num**2 ,we have to do 2 changes:

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5] 1. Remove the function square( )

sqrnum=list(map(square,mynums)
print(squrnum) 2. Rewrite this function as lambda in
place of first argument while calling
the function map( )

Following will be the resultant code:

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5]
sqrnum=list(map(lambda num: num*num,mynums))
print(sqrnum)
 Exercise

 Write a lambda expression that accepts a string as

argument and returns it’s first character

Now use this lambda expression in map( ) function

to work on for first 3 month names
 Solution

months=["January","February","March"]
print(list(map(lambda mystring: mystring[0],months)))

Output:
 Exercise

 Write a lambda expression that accepts a string as

argument and returns the word EVEN if the string
is of even length and returns it’s first character if
the string is of odd length

Now use this lambda expression in map( ) function

to work on for first 3 month names
 Solution

months=["January","February","March"]
print(list(map(lambda mystring: "EVEN" if len(mystring)%2==0 else
mystring[0],months)))

Output:
 Using Lambdas With filter( )

def check_even(num):
return num%2==0

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5,6]
print(list(filter(check_even,mynums)))

To convert the above code using lambda ,we have to same 2

steps as before.

Following will be the resultant code:

mynums=[1,2,3,4,5,6]
print(list(filter(lambda num:num%2==0 ,mynums)))
 Exercise

 Write a lambda expression that accepts a character

as argument and returns True if it is a vowel
otherwise False

Now ask the user to input his/her name and display

only the vowels in the name . In case the name does
not contain any vowel display the message No vowels
in your name
 Solution

name=input("Enter your name:")

vowels=list(filter(lambda ch: ch in "aeiou" ,name))
if len(vowels)==0:
print("No vowels in your name")
else:
print("Vowels in your name are:",vowels)

Output:
 PYTHON
LECTURE 25
 Today’s Agenda

• List -I
• What Is A List ?
• Creating A List
• Accessing The List Elements
• Adding New Data In The List
• The Slice Operator With List
 What Is A List ?

 Unlike C++ or Java, Python doesn’t has arrays.

 So , to hold a sequence of values, Python provides us a

special built in class called ‘list’ .

 Thus a list in Python is defined as a collection of

values.
 Important Characteristics
Of A List

 The important characteristics of Python lists are as follows:

 Lists are ordered.

 Lists can contain any arbitrary objects.

 List elements can be accessed by index.

 Lists can be nested to arbitrary depth.

 Lists are mutable.

 Lists are dynamic.

 How To Create A List ?

 In Python, a list is created by placing all the items (elements)

inside a square bracket [ ], separated by commas.

 It can contain heterogeneous elements also.

# empty list
my_list = []

# list of integers
my_list = [1, 2, 3]

# list with mixed datatypes

my_list = [1, "Hello", 3.4]
 Other Ways Of Creating List

 We also can create a list by using the list( ) function

# Create an empty list

list1 = list()
# Create a list with elements 22, 31, 61
list2 = list([22, 31, 61])
# Create a list with strings
list3 = list(["tom", "jerry", "spyke"])
# Create a list with characters p, y, t, h, o, n
list4 = list("python")
 Printing The List

 We can print a list in three ways:

 Directly passing it to the print( ) function

 Accessing individual elements using subscript operator [ ]

 Accessing multiple elements using slice operator [ : ]

 Printing The List

mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
print(mynums)

Output:
[10,20,30,40,50]
 Accessing Individual Elements

 A list in Python has indexes running from 0 to size-1

 For example:

 mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]

 The above code will create a logical diagram in memory,

where positive indexing will go from 0 to 4 and negative
indexing from -1 to -5
Accessing Individual Elements
 Accessing Individual Elements

mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
print(mynums[0])
print(mynums[1])
print(mynums[-3])
print(mynums[-2])

Output:
10
20
30
40
 Accessing List Elements Using
While Loop

mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
n=len(mynums) Just like len( )
i=0 works with strings
while i<n: , similarly it also
works with list
print(mynums[i]) also and returns
i=i+1 number of
elements in the
list
Output:
10
20
30
40
50
 Accessing List Elements Using
For Loop

mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
for x in mynums: Since list is a
print(x) sequence type , so
for loop can
Output: iterate over
10 individual
elements of the
20 list
30
40
50
 Exercise

 Redesign the previous code using for loop only to

traverse the list in reverse order. Don’t use slice
operator
 Solution

mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
n=len(mynums)
for i in range(n-1,-1,-1):
print(mynums[i])

Output:
50
40
30
20
10
 Adding New Data In The List

 The most common way of adding a new element to an existing

list is by calling the append( ) method.

 This method takes one argument and adds it at the end of the list

mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
print(mynums)
Remember , lists are
mynums.append(60) mutable . So append( )
print(mynums) method doesn’t create a
new list , rather it simply
Output: adds a new element to the
[10,20,30,40,50] existing list.
CAN YOU PROVE THIS ?
[10,20,30,40,50,60]
 Solution

mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
print(mynums)
print(id(mynums)) As we can see in the both
mynums.append(60) the cases the id( )
function is returning the
print(mynums) same address . This
means that no new list
print(id(mynums)) was created.
Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to accept five integers from the

user , store them in a list . Display these integers
and also display their sum

 Output:
 Solution

mynums=[]
i=1
while i<=5:
x=int(input("Enter "+str(i)+" element:"))
mynums.append(x)
i=i+1
print("The list is:")
sum=0
for x in mynums:
print(x)
sum+=x
print("Sum is",sum)
 Slice Operator With List

 Just like we can apply slice operator with strings , similarly

Python allows us to apply slice operator with lists also.

 Syntax: list_var[x:y]

• x denotes the start index of slicing and y denotes the end

index . But Python ends slicing at y-1 index.
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[1:4]) print(mynums[3:5])

• Output: • Output:
[20,30,40] [40,50]
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[0:4]) print(mynums[0:10])

• Output: • Output:
[10,20,30,40] [10,20,3040,50]
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[2:2]) print(mynums[6:10])

• Output: • Output:
[] []
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[1: ]) print(mynums[:3])

• Output: • Output:
[20,30,40,50 ] [10,20,30 ]
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[ :-2]) print(mynums[-2:])

• Output: • Output:
[10, 20,30 ] [40,50]
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[-2:1]) print(mynums[-2:-2])

• Output: • Output:
[] []
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[-2:2]) print(mynums[-2:4])

• Output: • Output:
[] [40]
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[-4:2]) print(mynums[1:-2])

• Output: • Output:
[20 ] [20,30]
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[-2: -1]) print(mynums[-1:-2])

• Output: • Output:
[40] []
 Using Step Value

• String slicing can accept a third parameter also after the

two index numbers.

• The third parameter is called step value.

• So the complete syntax of slicing operator is:

s[begin:end:step]

• Step value indicates how many characters to move forward

after the first character is retrieved from the string and it’s
default value is 1 , but can be changed as per our choice.
 Using Step Value

• Another point to understand is that if step is positive

or not mentioned then
• Movement is in forward direction ( L→R)
• Default for start is 0 and end is len

• But if step is negative , then

• Movement is in backward direction (R→L)
• Default for start is -1 and end is –(len+1)
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[1:4:2]) print(mynums[1:4:0])

• Output: • Output:
[20,40] ValueError: Slice
step cannot be
0
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[4:1:1]) print(mynums[4:1:-1])

• Output: • Output:
[] [50,40,30]
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[::]) print(mynums[::-1])

• Output: • Output:
[10,20,30,40,50 ] [50,40,30,20,10]
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[::-2]) print(mynums[::2])

• Output: • Output:
[50,30,10 ] [10,30,50]
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[-1:-4:]) print(mynums[-1:-4:-1])

• Output: • Output:
[] [50,40,30]
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[-4:-1:]) print(mynums[-4:-1:-1])

• Output: • Output:
[20,30,40] []
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[-1: :-2]) print(mynums[-1::2])

• Output: • Output:
[50,30,10] [50]
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[-1:4 :2]) print(mynums[-3::-1])

• Output: • Output:
[] [30,20,10]
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=[10,20,30,
mynums=[10,20,30,40,50]
40,50]
print(mynums[:-3:-1]) print(mynums[-1:-1:-1])

• Output: • Output:
[50,40] []
 PYTHON
LECTURE 26
 Today’s Agenda

• List -II
• Modifying A List
• Deletion In A List
• Appending / Prepending Items In A List
• Multiplyng A List
• Membership Operators On List
 Modifying A List

 Python allows us to edit/change/modify an element in

a list by simply using it’s index and assigning a new value
to it
Syntax:
list_var[index_no]=new_value
Example
sports=["cricket","hockey","football"]
print(sports)
sports[1]="badminton"
print(sports)
Output
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football"]
print(sports)
sports[3]="badminton"
print(sports)

Output:
 Modifying Multiple Values

 Python allows us to modify multiple continuous list

values in a single statement , which is done using the
regular slice operator.
Syntax:
list_var[m:n]=[list of new value ]
Example:
sports=["cricket","hockey","football","snooker"]
print(sports)
sports[1:3]=["badminton","tennis"]
print(sports)
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football","snooker"]
print(sports)
sports[1:3]=["badminton","tennis","rugby","table
tennis"]
The number of elements
print(sports) inserted need not be equal to
the number replaced. Python
Output: just grows or shrinks the list
as needed.
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football","snooker"]
print(sports)
sports[1:2]=["badminton","tennis","rugby","table
tennis"]
print(sports)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football","snooker"]
print(sports)
sports[1:1]=["badminton","tennis"]
print(sports) If we have end index same or less
than start index , then Python
doesn’t remove anything . Rather it
simply inserts new elements at the
given index and shifts the existing
Output: element
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football","snooker"]
print(sports)
sports[1:0]=["badminton","tennis"]
print(sports)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football","snooker"]
print(sports)
sports[1:-1]=["badminton","tennis"]
print(sports)
Since -1 is present in the list ,
Python removed items from 1 to
second last item of the list and
inserted new items there
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football","snooker"]
print(sports)
sports[1:-2]=["badminton","tennis"]
print(sports)

Output:
 Deleting Item From The List

 Python allows us to delete an item from the list by calling

the operator/keyword called del
Syntax:
del list_var[index_no]

Example:
sports=["cricket","hockey","football","snooker"]
print(sports)
del sports[3]
print(sports)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football","snooker"]
print(sports)
del sports[4]
print(sports)
Subscript operator will generate
IndexError whenever we pass
invalid index

Output:
 Deleting Multiple Items

 Python allows us to delete multiple items from the list in

2 ways:

 By assigning empty list to the appropriate slice

OR

 By passing slice to the del operator

 Example

 Assigning Empty List

sports=["cricket","hockey","football","snooker"]
print(sports)
sports[1:3]=[]
print(sports)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football","snooker"]
print(sports)
sports[1:5]=[]
print(sports)
Slice operator never generates
IndexError , so the code will work
fine and remove all the items from
given start index to the end of the
list
Output:
 Example

 Passing slice to del operator

sports=["cricket","hockey","football","snooker"]
print(sports)
del sports[1:3]
print(sports)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football","snooker"]
print(sports)
del sports[1:5]
print(sports)
Here also , since we have used the
slice operator , no exception will
Output: arise
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football","snooker"]
print(sports)
del sports[0:4]
print(sports)

Output:
 Deleting Entire List

 We can delete or remove the entire list object as well as

it’s reference from the memory by passing the list object
reference to the del operator
Syntax:
del list_var
Example:
sports=["cricket","hockey","football","snooker"]
print(sports)
del sports
print(sports)
Output:
 Appending Or Prepending
Items To A List

 Additional items can be added to the start or end of a list

using the + concatenation operator or the += compound
assignment operator

 The only condition is that the item to be concatenated must be a

list

Example:
outdoor=["cricket","hockey","football"]
indoor=["carrom","chess","table-tennis"]
allsports=outdoor+indoor
print(allsports)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football"]
sports=["carrom","chess","table-tennis"]+sports
print(sports)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

evens=[4,6,8]
evens=2+evens
print(evens)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

evens=[4,6,8]
evens=list(2)+evens
print(evens)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

evens=[4,6,8]
evens=[2]+evens
print(evens)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football"]
sports=sports+"boxing"
print(sports)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football"]
sports=sports+list("boxing")
print(sports)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football"]
sports=sports+["boxing"]
print(sports)

Output:
 Multiplying A List

 Python allows us to multiply a list by an integer and

when we do so it makes copies of list items that many
number of times, while preserving the order.
 Syntax:
list_var * n
Example:
sports=["cricket","hockey","football"]
sports=sports*3
print(sports)
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football"]
sports=sports*3.0
print(sports)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sports=["cricket","hockey","football"]
sports=sports*["boxing"]
print(sports)

Output:
 Membership Operator On List

 We can apply membership operators in and not in on

the list to search for a particular item
Syntax:
element in list_var

Example:
sports=["cricket","hockey","football"]
print("cricket" in sports)

Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to accept 5 unique integers from

the user. Make sure if the integer being entered is
already present in the list your code displays the
message “Item already present” and ask the user to
reenter the integer.
Output:
 Solution

myints=[]
print("Enter 5 unique integers:")
i=0
while i<=4:
item=int(input("Enter element:"))
found=False
for x in myints:
if x==item:
print("Item already present")
found=True
break;
if found==False:
myints.append(item)
i=i+1
print("integers inputted by you are:")
for x in myints:
print(x)
 Exercise

 Write a program to accept 2 lists from the user of 5

nos each . Assume each list will have unique nos
Now find out how many items in these lists are
common .
Output:
 Solution

list1=[]
list2=[]
print("Enter 5 unique nos for first list:")
for i in range(1,6):
item=int(input("Enter element:"))
list1.append(item)
print("Enter 5 unique nos for second list:")
for i in range(1,6):
item=int(input("Enter element:"))
list2.append(item)
count=0
for x in list1:
for y in list2:
if x==y:
count=count+1
if(count==0):
print("These lists have no common items")
else:
print("These lists have",count," items common")
 Exercise

 Rewrite the previous code so that your code alos

displays the items which are common in both the
lists

Output:
 Solution

list1=[]
list2=[]
list3=[]
print("Enter 5 unique nos for first list:")
for i in range(1,6):
item=int(input("Enter element:"))
list1.append(item)
print("Enter 5 unique nos for second list:")
for i in range(1,6):
item=int(input("Enter element:"))
list2.append(item)

for x in list1:
for y in list2:
if x==y:
list3.append(x)

if(len(list3)==0):
print("These lists have no common items")
else:
print("These lists have",len(list3)," items common")
print("These items are:",list3)
 PYTHON
LECTURE 27
 Today’s Agenda

• List -III
• Built In Functions For List
 Built In Functions For List

 There are some built-in functions in Python that we can

use on lists.

 These are:
 len()
 max()
 min()
 sum()
 sorted()
 list()
 any()
 all()
 The len( ) Function

 Returns the number of items in the list

Example:
fruits=["apple","banana","orange",None]
print(len(fruits))

Output:
4
 The max( ) Function

 Returns the greatest item present in the list

Example:
nums=[5,2,11,3]
print(max(nums))

Output:
11
 Guess The Output ?

months=["january","may","december"]
print(max(months))

Output:
may
 Guess The Output ?

booleans=[False,True]
print(max(booleans))

Output:
True
 Guess The Output ?

mynums=[1.1,1.4,0.9]
print(max(mynums))

Output:
1.4
 Guess The Output ?

mynums=[True,5,False]
print(max(mynums))

Output:
5
 Guess The Output ?

mynums=[0.2,0.4,True,0.5]
print(max(mynums))

Output:
True
 Guess The Output ?

mynums=["True",False]
print(max(mynums))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

values=[10,"hello",20,"bye"]
print(max(values))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

fruits=["apple","banana","orange"]
print(max(fruits))

Output:
Orange
 Guess The Output ?

fruits=["apple","banana","orange",None]
print(max(fruits))

Output:
 The min( ) Function

 Returns the least item present in the list

Example:
nums=[5,2,11,3]
print(min(nums))

Output:
2
 Guess The Output ?

months=["january","may","december"]
print(min(months))

Output:
december
 The sum( ) Function

 Returns the sum of all the items present in the list .

However items must be of Numeric or boolean type

Example:
nums=[10,20,30]
print(sum(nums))

Output:
60
 Guess The Output ?

nums=[10,20,30,True,False]
print(sum(nums))

Output:
61
 Guess The Output ?

nums=['1','2','3']
print(sum(nums))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

nums=[2.5,3.5,4.5]
print(sum(nums))

Output:
10.5
 The sorted( ) Function

 Returns a sorted version of the list passed as argument.

Example:
nums=[7,4,9,1]
print(sorted(nums))
print(nums)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

months=["january","may","december"]
print(sorted(months))

Output:
[“december”,”january”,”may”]
 Guess The Output ?

months=["january","may","december",3]
print(sorted(months))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

values=[2.4,1.0,2,3.6]
print(sorted(values))

Output:
[1.0,2,2.4,3.6]
 Guess The Output ?

values=["bhopal","bhop","Bhopal"]
print(sorted(values))

Output:
[“Bhopal”,”bhop”,”bhopal”]
 Sorting In Descending Order

 To sort the list in descending order , we can pass the

keyword argument reverse with value set to True to
the function sorted( )

Example:
nums=[3,1,5,2]
print(sorted(nums,reverse=True))

Output:
 The list( ) Function

 The list( ) function converts an iterable i.e tuple , range,

set , dictionary and string to a list.
Syntax:
list(iterable)

Example:
city="bhopal"
x=list(city)
print(x)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

n=20
x=list(n)
print(x)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

n="20"
x=list(n)
print(x)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

t=(10,20,30)
x=list(t)
print(x)
This is a
Output: tuple
 The any( ) Function

 The any( ) function accepts a List as argument and

returns True if atleast one element of the List is True. If
not, this method returns False. If the List is empty, then
also it returns False
Syntax:
list(iterable)

Example:
x = [1, 3, 4, 0]
print(any(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x = [0, False]
print(any(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x = [0, False, 5]
print(any(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x= []
print(any(x))

Output:
 The all( ) Function

 The all( ) function accepts a List as argument and returns

True if all the elements of the List are True or if the
List is empty .If not, this method returns False.

Syntax:
list(iterable)

Example:
x = [1, 3, 4, 0]
print(all(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x = [0, False]
print(all(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x = [1,3,4,5]
print(all(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x = [0, False, 5]
print(all(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x= []
print(all(x))

Output:
 PYTHON
LECTURE 28
 Today’s Agenda

• List -IV
• Methods Of List
 List Methods

 There are some methods also in Python that we can use on

lists.

 These are:
 append()
 extend()
 insert()
 index()
 count()
 remove()
 pop()
 clear()
 sort()
 reverse()
 The append( ) Method

 Adds a single element to the end of the list . Modifies the

list in place but doesn’t return anything

Syntax:
list_var.append(item)

Example:
primes=[2,3,5,7]
primes.append(11)
print(primes)
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

animal = ['cat', 'dog', 'rabbit']

wild_animal = ['tiger', 'fox']
animal.append(wild_animal)
It's important to notice that,
print(animal) append() adds entire list as a
single element .
If we need to add items of a list to
the another list (rather than the
list itself), then we must use the
Output: extend() method .
 Guess The Output ?

animal = ['cat', 'dog', 'rabbit']

wild_animal = ['tiger', 'fox']
animal.append(wild_animal)
print(animal[3])
print(animal[3][0])
print(animal[3][0][0])
print(animal[3][1][0])

Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to accept an alphanumeric string

from the user. Now extract only digits from the
given input and add it to the list . Finally print the
list. Make sure your list contains numeric
representation of digits

Output:
 Solution

text=input("Enter an alphanumeric string:")

nums=[]
for x in text:
if x in "0123456789":
nums.append(int(x))
print(nums)
 The extend( ) Method

 extend() also adds to the end of a list, but the argument

is expected to be an iterable.
 The items in <iterable> are added individually.
 Modifies the list in place but doesn’t return anything

Syntax:
list_var.extend(iterable)
Output:

Example:
primes=[2,3,5,7]
primes.extend([11,13,17])
print(primes)
 Guess The Output ?

primes=[2,3,5,7]
primes.extend(11)
print(primes)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

primes=[2,3,5,7]
primes.extend([11])
print(primes)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

animal = ['cat', 'dog', 'rabbit']

wild_animal = ['tiger', 'fox']
animal.extend(wild_animal)
print(animal)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

animal = ['cat', 'dog', 'rabbit']

wild_animal = ['tiger', 'fox']
animal.extend(wild_animal)
print(animal[3])
print(animal[3][0])
print(animal[3][1])

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

colors=["red","green"]
colors.extend("blue")
print(colors)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

colors=["red","green"]
colors.extend(["blue"])
print(colors)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

a = [1, 2, 3]
b = [4, 5, 6].extend(a)
print(b)

Output:
 The insert( ) Method

 The insert() method inserts the element to the list at the

given index.
 Modifies the list in place but doesn’t return anything

Syntax:
list_var.insert(index,item)

Example: Output:
primes=[2,3,7,9]
primes.insert(2,5)
print(primes)
 Guess The Output ?

primes=[2,3,7,9]
primes.insert(-2,5)
print(primes)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

primes=[2,3,5,7]
primes.insert(5,9)
print(primes)
The method insert( ) works like
slicing operator . So even if the
index given is beyond range , it will
add the element at the end.
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

primes=[2,3,5,7]
primes.insert(-5,9)
print(primes)

Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to accept any 5 random integers

from the user and add them in a list in such a way
that list always remains sorted. DO NOT USE THE
FUNCTION sort( )

Output:
 Solution

i=1
sortednums=[]
print("Enter any 5 random integers:")
while i<=5:
n=int(input())
pos=0
for x in sortednums:
if x>n:
break
pos=pos+1
sortednums.insert(pos,n)
i=i+1
print("Sorted list is:")
print(sortednums)
 The index( ) Method

 The index() method searches an element in the list and

returns it’s index.
 If the element occurs more than once it returns it’s
smallest/first position.
 If element is not found, it raises a ValueError exception

Syntax:
list_var.index(item)
Output:
Example:
primes=[2,3,5,7]
pos=primes.index(5)
print("position of 5 is",pos)
 Guess The Output ?

vowels = ['a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'i', 'u']

pos = vowels.index('e')
print('The index of e:',pos)
pos = vowels.index('i')
print('The index of i:',pos)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

mynums = [10,20,30,40,50]
x = mynums.index(20)
print("20 occurs at",x,"position")
x = mynums.index(60)
print("60 occurs at",x,"position")
x = mynums.index(10)
print("10 occurs at",x,"position")
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

vowels = ['a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'i', 'u']

pos = vowels.index('f')
print('The index of e:',pos)
pos = vowels.index('i')
print('The index of i:',pos)

Output:
 The count( ) Method

 The count() method returns the number of

occurrences of an element in a list

 In simple terms, it counts how many times an element has

occurred in a list and returns it.

Syntax:
list_var.count(item)
Output:
Example:
country=['i','n','d','i','a']
x=country.count('i')
print("i occurs",x,"times in",country)
 Guess The Output ?

vowels = ['a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'i', 'u']

x = vowels.count('i')
print("i occurs",x,"times")
x = vowels.count('e')
print("e occurs",x,"times")
x = vowels.count('j')
print("j occurs",x,"times")

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

points = [1, 4, 2, 9, 7, 8, 9, 3, 1]
x = points.count(9)
print("9 occurs",x,"times")

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

strings = ['Cat', 'Bat', 'Sat', 'Cat', 'cat', 'Mat']

x=strings.count("Cat")
print("Cat occurs",x,"times")

Output:
 The remove( ) Method

 The remove() method searches for the given element in

the list and removes the first matching element.

 If the element(argument) passed to the remove()

method doesn't exist, ValueError exception is thrown.

Syntax:
list_var.remove(item)
Output:
Example:
vowels=['a','e','i','o','u']
vowels.remove('a')
print(vowels)
 Guess The Output ?

subjects=["phy","chem","maths"]
subjects.remove("chem")
print(subjects)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

subjects=["phy","chem","maths","chem"]
subjects.remove("chem")
print(subjects)
subjects.remove("chem")
print(subjects)
subjects.remove("chem")
print(subjects)
Output:
 The pop( ) Method

 The pop() method removes and returns the element at the given
index (passed as an argument) from the list.

Syntax:
list_var.pop(index)

 Important points about pop( ) method:

 If the index passed to the pop() method is not in the range, it throws IndexError:
pop index out of range exception.

 The parameter passed to the pop() method is optional. If no parameter is passed,

the default index -1 is passed as an argument which returns the last element

 The pop() method returns the element present at the given index.

 Also, the pop() method updates the list after removing the element
 Guess The Output ?

fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']

print(fruits)
print(fruits.pop(1))
print(fruits)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']

print(fruits)
print(fruits.pop())
print(fruits)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']

print(fruits)
print(fruits.pop(3))
print(fruits)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']

print(fruits)
print(fruits.pop(-3))
print(fruits)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']

print(fruits)
print(fruits.pop(-4))
print(fruits)

Output:
 del v/s pop( ) v/s remove( )

 pop( ) : Takes Index , removes element & returns it

 remove( ) : Takes value, removes first occurrence and

returns nothing

 delete : Takes index, removes value at that index and

returns nothing

 Even their exceptions are also different if index is wrong or

element is not present:
 pop() : throws IndexError: pop index out of range
 remove(): throws ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list
 del: throws IndexError: list assignment index out of range
 The clear( ) Method

 The clear() method removes all items from the list.

 It only empties the given list and doesn't return any value.

Syntax:
list_var.clear( )

Example:
fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']
print(fruits)
fruits.clear() Output:
print(fruits)
 The sort( ) Method

 The sort() method sorts the elements of a given list.

 The order can be ascending or descending

Syntax:
list_var.sort(reverse=True|False, key=name of func)

Parameter Values:
Parameter Name Description
reverse Optional. reverse=True will sort
the list descending. Default is
reverse=False
key Optional. A function to specify the
sorting criteria(s)
 Guess The Output ?

vowels = ['e', 'a', 'u', 'o', 'i']

vowels.sort()
print(vowels)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

vowels = ['e', 'a', 'u', 'o', 'i']

vowels.sort(reverse=True)
print(vowels)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

a = ["bee", "wasp", "moth", "ant"]

a.sort()
print(a)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

a = ["bee", "wasp", "moth", "ant"]

a.sort(reverse=True)
print(a)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

a = ["bee", "wasp", "moth", "ant"]

a.sort(key=len)
print(a)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

a = ["january", "february", "march"]

a.sort(key=len,reverse=True)
print(a)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

mylist = ["a",10,True]
mylist.sort()
print(mylist)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

mylist = [25,10,True,False]
mylist.sort()
print(mylist)

Output:
 Passing Our
Own Function As Key

 We also can pass our own function name to be used as key

but it should take only 1 argument and return some value
based on that argument.

 This return value will be used by Python as key to

sorting
 Guess The Output ?

def sortSecond(val):
return val[1]
list1 = [(1,2),(3,3),(1,1)]
list1.sort(key=sortSecond)
print(list1)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

def sortSecond(val):
return 0
list1 = [(1,2),(3,3),(1,1)]
list1.sort(key=sortSecond)
print(list1)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

student_rec = [['john', 'A', 12],['jane', 'B', 7],['dave',

'B', 10]]
student_rec.sort()
print(student_rec)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

def myFunc(val):
return val[2]

student_rec = [['john', 'A', 12],['jane', 'B', 7],['dave',

'B', 10]]
student_rec.sort(key=myFunc)
print(student_rec)

Output:
 The reverse( ) Method

 The reverse() method reverses the elements of a given list.

 It doesn't return any value. It only reverses the elements and

updates the list.

Syntax:
list_var.reverse( )

Example:
os = ['Windows', 'macOS', 'Linux']
print('Original List:', os) Output:
os.reverse()
print('Updated List:', os)
 PYTHON
LECTURE 29
 Today’s Agenda

• List -V
• List Comprehension
 What Is Comprehension ?

 Comprehensions are constructs that allow sequences to be

built from other sequences.

 In simple words to build a List from another List or Set from

another Set , we can use Comprehensions

 Python 2.0 introduced list comprehensions and Python

3.0 comes with dictionary and set comprehensions.
 Understanding
List Comprehension

 To understand List comprehensions let’s take a

programming challenge.

 Suppose you want to take the letters in the word “Bhopal”,

and put them in a list.

 Can you tell in how many ways can you do this ?

 Till now , we know 2 ways to achieve this:

 Using for loop
 Using lambda
 Using “for” Loop

text="Bhopal"
myList=[]
for x in text:
myList.append(x)
print(myList)

Output:
 Using Lambda

myList=list(map(lambda x:x ,"Bhopal"))

print(myList)

Output:
 Understanding
List Comprehension

 Now , we can solve the same problem by using List

Comprehension also .

 The advantage is that List Comprehensions are 35%

faster than FOR loop and 45% faster than map
function
 Understanding
List Comprehension

 To understand this , look at the same code using List

Comprehension:

myList=[x for x in "Bhopal"]

print(myList)

Output:
 Syntax For
List Comprehension

 Syntax:

list_variable = [x for x in iterable <test_cond>]

 Explanation

 For a Python List Comprehension, we use the delimiters for a list-

square brackets.

 Inside those, we use a for-statement on an iterable.

 Then there is an optional test condition we can apply on each

member of iterable

 Finally we have our output expression

 Exercise

 Write a program to produce square of nos from 1 to

5 , store them in a list and print the list.

Do the code using:

1. Normal for loop
2. List Comprehension

Output:
 Using for Loop

squaresList=[]
for i in range(1,6):
squaresList.append(i**2)

print(squaresList)
 Using List Comprehension

squaresList=[x**2 for x in range(1,6)]

print(squaresList)
 Exercise

 Write a program to accept a string from the user

and convert each word of the given string to
uppercase , store it in a list and print the list

Do the code using:

1. Normal for loop
2. List Comprehension

Output:
 Using for Loop

text=input("Type a string:")
uppersList=[]
for x in text.split():
uppersList.append(x.upper())

print(uppersList)
 Using List Comprehension

text=input("Type a string:")
uppersList=[x.upper()for x in text.split()]

print(uppersList)
 Exercise

 Write a program to accept 5 integers from the user

and store them in a list . Now display the list and
sum of the elements.

Do the code using:

1. Normal for loop
2. List Comprehension

Output:
 Using for Loop

myNums=[]
text=input("Enter 5 integers:")
for x in text.split():
myNums.append(int(x))

print("List is:",myNums)
print("Sum is:",sum(myNums))
 Using List Comprehension

text=input("Enter 5 integers:")
myNums=[int(x) for x in text.split()]

print("List is:",myNums)
print("Sum is:",sum(myNums))
 Adding Conditions In
List Comprehension

 As previously mentioned , it is possible to add a test

condition in List Comprehension.

 When we do this , we get only those items from the

iterable for which the condition is True.

 Syntax:

list_variable = [x for x in iterable <test_cond>]

 Exercise

 Write a program to produce square of only odd nos

from 1 to 5 , store them in a list and print the list.

Solution
squaresList=[x**2 for x in range(1,6) if x%2!=0]
print(squaresList)

Output:
 Exercise

 Create a function called removevowels() which

accepts a string as argument and returns a list with
all the vowels removed from that string

Do this code using:

 Normal for loop
 List Comprehension

Output:
 Using for Loop

def removevowels(text):
myList=[]
for x in text:
if x not in "aeiou":
myList.append(x)
return myList

text=input("Type a string:")
finalList=removevowels(text)
print(finalList)
 Using List Comprehension

def removevowels(text):
myList=[x for x in text if x not in "aeiou"]
return myList

text=input("Type a string:")
finalList=removevowels(text)
print(finalList)
 Exercise

 Create a function called get_numbers() which

accepts a list of strings , symbols and numbers as
argument and returns a list containing only
numbers from that list.

Output:
 Solution

def get_numbers(myList):
mynumberList=[x for x in myList if type(x) is int]
return mynumberList

myList=["bhopal",25,"$","hello",34,21,"indore",22]
print("Actual List")
print(myList)
print("List with numbers only")
mynumberList=get_numbers(myList)
print(mynumberList)
 Exercise

 Create a function called getlength() which accepts a

string as argument and returns a list containing
the length of all the words of that string except the
word “the”. Accept the string from the user.

Output:
 Solution

def getlength(str):
myList=[len(x) for x in str.split() if x!="the"]
return myList

text=input("Type a string:")
myList=getlength(text)
print(myList)
 Adding Multiple Conditions
In List Comprehension

 List Comprehension allows us to mention more than

one if condition.

 To do this we simply have to mention the next if after the

condition of first if

 Syntax:

list_variable = [x for x in iterable <test_cond 1> <test cond 2>]

 Exercise

 Write a program to produce square of only those

numbers which are divisible by 2 as well as 3 from
1 to 20 , store them in a list and print the list.

Solution
myList=[x**2 for x in range(1,21) if x%2==0 if x%3==0]
print(myList)

Output:
 Previous Code Using for Loop

myNums=[]
for x in range(1,21):
if x%2==0:
if x%3==0:
myNums.append(x**2)
print(myNums)
 Exercise

 Write a function called get_upper( ) which accepts

a string as argument and returns a list containing
only upper case letters but without any vowels of
that string. Accept the string from the user as input

Output:
 Solution

def get_upper (text):

myList=[x for x in text if 65<=ord(x)<=90 if x not in "AEIOU"]
return myList

text=input("Type a string:")
myList=get_upper(text)
print(myList)
 What About
Logical Operators ?

 List Comprehension allows us to use logical or/and

operator also but we should use only 1 if statement

Example:
a = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
b = [x for x in a if x % 2 == 0 or x % 3 == 0]
print(b)

Output:
 Exercise

 Write a function called remove_min_max( ) which

accepts a list as argument and removes the
minimum and maximum elements from the list
and returns it

Output:
 Solution

def remove_min_max(myList):
myNewList=[x for x in myList if x!=min(myList) and x!=max(myList)]

return myNewList

a=[10,3,15,12,24,6,1,18]
print("Original list")
print(a)
print("After removing min and max element")
print(remove_min_max(a))
 If – else
In List Comprehension

 List Comprehension allows us to put if- else statements

also

 But since in a comprehension, the first thing we specify is

the value to put in a list, so we put our if-else in place of
value.

 Syntax:

list_variable = [expr1 if cond else expr2 for x in iterable ]

 Example

myList=["Even" if i%2==0 else "Odd" for i in range(1,11)]

print(myList)

Output:
 Nested
List Comprehension

 List Comprehension can be nested also.

 To understand this , look at the code in the next slide and

figure out it’s output
 Nested
List Comprehension

a=[20,40,60]
b=[2,4,6] Explanation:

c=[] The code is multiplying

every element of list a , with
for x in a: every element of list b and storing
for y in b: the product in list c

c.append(x * y)
print(c)

Output:
[40, 80, 120, 80, 160, 240, 120, 240, 360]
 Nested
List Comprehension

 Now the same code can be rewritten using Nested List

Comprehension.

 To do this , we will condense each of the lines of code into

one line, beginning with the x * y operation.

 This will be followed by the outer for loop, then the

inner for loop.
 Example

a=[20,40,60]
b=[2,4,6]
c=[x * y for x in a for y in b]
print(c)

Output:
[40, 80, 120, 80, 160, 240, 120, 240, 360]
 Exercise

 Write a function called flatten( ) which accepts a

nested list as argument and returns a single list
containing all the elements of the nested list

Output:
 Solution

def flatten(mylist):
newlist=[y for x in mylist for y in x]
return newlist

mylist = [[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8]]
print("Before calling flatten list is")
print(mylist)
newlist=flatten(mylist)
print("After calling flatten list is")
print(newlist)
 PYTHON
LECTURE 30
 Today’s Agenda

• Tuple-I
• What Is A Tuple ?
• Differences With List
• Benefits Of Tuple
• Creating Tuple
• Packing / Unpacking A Tuple
• Accessing A Tuple
 What Is A Tuple ?

 Python provides another type that is an ordered

collection of objects.

 This type is called a tuple.

 Differences With List

 Tuples are identical to lists in all respects, except for the

following properties:

 Tuples are defined by enclosing the elements in parentheses (())

instead of square brackets ([]).

 Tuples are immutable.

 Advantages Of Tuple Over List

 Program execution is faster when manipulating a

tuple than it is for the equivalent list.

 They prevent accidental modification.

 There is another Python data type called a dictionary,

which requires as one of it’s components a value that is of
an immutable type. A tuple can be used for this purpose,
whereas a list can’t be.
 How To Create A Tuple ?

 As mentioned before a tuple is created by placing all the items

(elements) inside a parenthesis ( ), separated by commas.

 It can contain heterogeneous elements also.

# empty tuple
my_tuple = ()

# tuple having integers

my_tuple = (1, 2, 3)

# tuple with mixed datatypes

my_tuple = (1, "Hello", 3.4)
 Guess The Output ?

my_tuple = (2) Why did it happen ?

print(my_tuple)
Since parentheses are also
print(type(my_tuple)) used to define operator
precedence in expressions ,
so , Python evaluates
Output: the expression (2) as simply
the integer 2 and
creates an int object.
 So , How To Create A
1 Element Tuple ?

 To tell Python that we really want to define a singleton

tuple, include a trailing comma (,) just before the
closing parenthesis.

my_tuple = (2,)
print(my_tuple)
print(type(my_tuple))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

my_tuple = ()
print(my_tuple)
print(type(my_tuple))

Output:
 Packing And Unpacking
A Tuple

 Packing and unpacking is another thing which sets

tuples apart from lists.

 Packing:
 Packing is a simple syntax which lets us create tuples "on the fly"
without using the normal notation:
a = 1, 2, 3
 This creates a tuple of 3 values and assigned it to a. Comparing this to
the "normal" way:
a = (1, 2, 3)
 Packing And Unpacking
A Tuple

 Unpacking:
 We can also go the other way, and unpack the values from a tuple
into separate variables:
a = 1, 2, 3
x, y, z = a

 After running this code, we have x = 1, y = 2 and z = 3.

 The value of the tuple a is unpacked into the 3 variables

x, y and z.

 Note that the number of variables has to exactly match the

number of elements in the tuple, or there will be an exception.
 Uses Of Packing
And Unpacking

 In the previous code , the variable a is just used as a

temporary store for the tuple.

 We also can leave the middle-man and do this:

x, y, z = 1, 2, 3

 After running this code, as before, we have x = 1, y =2

and z = 3.

 But can you guess what Python is doing internally ?

 Internal Working

 First the values are packed into a tuple:

 Next, the tuple is assigned to the left hand side of the = sign:

 Finally, the tuple is unpacked into the variables:

 Swapping Of 2 Variables

 We have seen the following code many times before which

swaps the variables a and b :
a = 10
b = 20
b, a = a, b

 Now , can you tell what is happening internally ?

 First, a and b get packed into a tuple.

 Then the tuple gets unpacked again, but this time into
variables b then a.
 So the values get swapped!
 Returning Multiple Values
From Function

def calculate(a,b): Here Python will do the

following:
c=a+b 1. It will pack the values of
c and d in a tuple
d=a-b 2. Then it will unpack this
tuple into the variables
return c,d x and y
3. In the second call since
z is a single variable , it
x,y=calculate(5,3) is automatically
converted into a tuple
print("Sum is",x,"and difference is",y)
z=calculate(15,23)
print("Sum is",z[0],"and difference is",z[1])

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

def add(a,b,c,d): Why did it happen ?

print("Sum is",a+b+c+d) Since we are passing mytuple as a
single argument , so Python
is giving exception.
mytuple=(10,20,30,40)
What is the solution ?
add(mytuple)
To overcome this we must
unpack mytuple to 4 individual
values. This can be done by
prefixing mytuple with
Output: a *. So the call will be
add(*mytuple)
 Solution

def add(a,b,c,d):
print("Sum is",a+b+c+d)

mytuple=(10,20,30,40)
add(*mytuple)

Output:
 Accessing The Tuple

 Similar to a list , we can access/print a tuple in three

ways:

 Directly passing it to the print( ) function

 Accessing individual elements using subscript operator [ ]

 Accessing multiple elements using slice operator [ : ]

 Printing The Entire Tuple

values=(10,20,30,40)
print(values)

Output:
 Accessing
Individual Elements

 Like a list , a tuple also has indexes running from 0 to

size-1

 For example:

 mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)

 The above code will create a logical diagram in memory,

where positive indexing will go from 0 to 4 and
negative indexing from -1 to -5
 Accessing
Individual Elements
 Accessing Individual
Elements

mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
print(mynums[0]) Even though we
create tuple using
print(mynums[1]) the symbol of ( ) but
print(mynums[-3]) when we access it’s
individual element ,
print(mynums[-2]) we still use the
subscript or index
operator [ ]
Output:
 Accessing Tuple Elements
Using
While Loop

mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
n=len(mynums) Just like len( )
works with list,
i=0 similarly it also
while i<n: works with tuple
and returns
print(mynums[i]) number of
elements in the
i=i+1
tuple

Output:
 Accessing Tuple Elements
Using
For Loop

mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
for x in mynums: Since tuple is a
print(x) sequence type , so
for loop can
iterate over
Output: individual
elements of the
tuple
 Exercise

Given the tuple below that represents the Arijit Singh’s

Aashiqui 2 songs.
Write code to print the album details, followed by a listing of
all the tracks in the album.
album="Aashiqui 2", 2013 ,"Arijit Singh",((1,"Tum hi
ho"),(2,"Chahun Mai Ya Na"),(3,"Meri Aashiqui"),(4,"Aasan
Nahin Yahaan"))
Output:
 Solution

album="Aashiqui 2","Arijit Singh",2013,((1,"Tum hi

ho"),(2,"Chahun Mai Ya Na"),(3,"Meri
Aashiqui"),(4,"Aasan Nahin Yahaan"))

title,singer,year,songs=album
print("Title:",title)
print("Year:",year)
print("Singer:",singer)
for info in songs:
print("\tSong Number:{0},Song
Name:{1}".format(info[0],info[1]))
 Slice Operator With Tuple

 Just like we can apply slice operator with lists and strings
, similarly Python allows us to apply slice operator with
tuple also.

 Syntax: tuple_var[x:y]

• x denotes the start index of slicing and y denotes the end

index . But Python ends slicing at y-1 index.
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=(10,20,30,
mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
40,50)
print(mynums[1:4]) print(mynums[3:5])

• Output: • Output:
(20,30,40) (40,50)
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=(10,20,30,
mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
40,50)
print(mynums[0:4]) print(mynums[0:10])

• Output: • Output:
(10,20,30,40) (10,20,3040,50)
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=(10,20,30,
mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
40,50)
print(mynums[2:2]) print(mynums[6:10])

• Output: • Output:
() ()
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=(10,20,30,
mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
40,50)
print(mynums[1: ]) print(mynums[:3])

• Output: • Output:
(20,30,40,50 ) (10,20,30)
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=(10,20,30,
Mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
40,50)
print(mynums[ :-2]) print(mynums[-2:])

• Output: • Output:
(10, 20,30 ) (40,50)
 Using Step Value

• The concept of step value in slicing with tuple is also

same as that with list
• Movement is in forward direction ( L→R)
• Default for start is 0 and end is len

• But if step is negative , then

• Movement is in backward direction (R→L)
• Default for start is -1 and end is –(len+1)
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=(10,20,30,
mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
40,50)
print(mynums[1:4:2]) print(mynums[1:4:0])

• Output: • Output:
(20,40) ValueError: Slice
step cannot be
0
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

mynums=(10,20,30,
mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
40,50)
print(mynums[4:1:1]) print(mynums[4:1:-1])

• Output: • Output:
() (50,40,30)
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

Mynums=(10,20,30,
mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
40,50)
print(mynums[::]) print(mynums[::-1])

• Output: • Output:
(10,20,30,40,50 ) (50,40,30,20,10)
 PYTHON
LECTURE 31
 Today’s Agenda

• Tuple-II
• Changing The Tuple
• Deleting The Tuple
• Functions Used With Tuple
 Changing A Tuple

 Unlike lists, tuples are immutable.

 This means that elements of a tuple cannot be changed

once it has been assigned.
 Guess The Output ?

mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
mynums[0]=15

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

mynums=([10,20],30,40,50)
print(mynums) Why did the code run?
mynums[0][0]=15 Although a tuple is immutable,
print(mynums) but if it contains a mutable
data then we can change
it’s value

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

myvalues=("hello",30,40,50)
print(myvalues)
myvalues[0]="hi"
print(myvalues)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

myvalues=(["hello",20],30,40,50)
print(myvalues)
myvalues[0][0]="hi"
print(myvalues)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
print(mynums) Why did the code run?
mynums=(15,25,35,45,55) Tuple object is immutable ,
print(mynums) but tuple reference is mutable.
So we can assign a new
tuple object to the same reference

Output:
 Deleting A Tuple

 As we discussed previously, a tuple is immutable.

 This also means that we can’t delete just a part of it.

 However we can delete an entire tuple if required.

 Guess The Output ?

mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
print(mynums)
del mynums[0]
print(mynums)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
print(mynums)
del mynums[2:4]
print(mynums)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

mynums=(10,20,30,40,50)
print(mynums)
del mynums
print(mynums)

Output:
 Built In Functions For Tuple

 A lot of functions that work on lists work on tuples too.

 But only those functions work with tuple which do not modify it

 Can you figure out which of these functions will work with
tuple ?
Answer:
 len() All of them will work with tuple.
 max()
 min() Will sorted( ) also work ?
 sum()
 sorted() Yes, even sorted( ) function
 tuple() will also work since it does not
 any() change the original tuple ,
 all() rather it returns a sorted copy
of it
 The len( ) Function

 Returns the number of items in the tuple

Example:
fruits=("apple","banana","orange",None)
print(len(fruits))

Output:
4
 The max( ) Function

 Returns the greatest item present in the tuple

Example:
nums=(5,2,11,3)
print(max(nums))

Output:
11
 Guess The Output ?

months=("january","may","december“)
print(max(months))

Output:
may
 Guess The Output ?

booleans=(False,True)
print(max(booleans))

Output:
True
 Guess The Output ?

Mynums=(True,5,False)
print(max(mynums))

Output:
5
 Guess The Output ?

mynums=("True",False)
print(max(mynums))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

values=(10,"hello",20,"bye")
print(max(values))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

fruits=("apple","banana","orange")
print(max(fruits))

Output:
orange
 Guess The Output ?

fruits=("apple","banana","orange",None)
print(max(fruits))

Output:
 The min( ) Function

 Returns the least item present in the tuple

Example:
nums=(5,2,11,3)
print(min(nums))

Output:
2
 Guess The Output ?

months=("january","may","december")
print(min(months))

Output:
december
 The sum( ) Function

 Returns the sum of all the items present in the tuple .

 As before , the items must be of Numeric or boolean

type

Example:
nums=(10,20,30)
print(sum(nums))

Output:
60
 Guess The Output ?

nums=(10,20,30,True,False)
print(sum(nums))

Output:
61
 Guess The Output ?

nums=('1','2','3')
print(sum(nums))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

nums=(2.5,3.5,4.5)
print(sum(nums))

Output:
10.5
 The sorted( ) Function

 Returns a sorted version of the tuple passed as

argument.
Did you notice a special
point ?
Example:
nums=(7,4,9,1)
Although sorted( ) is working
print(sorted(nums)) on a tuple , but it has returned
print(nums) a list

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

months=("january","may","december")
print(sorted(months))

Output:
[“december”,”january”,”may”]
 Guess The Output ?

months=("january","may","december",3)
print(sorted(months))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

values=(2.4,1.0,2,3.6)
print(sorted(values))

Output:
[1.0,2,2.4,3.6]
 Guess The Output ?

values=("bhopal","bhop","Bhopal")
print(sorted(values))

Output:
[“Bhopal”,”bhop”,”bhopal”]
 Sorting In Descending Order

 To sort the tuple in descending order , we can pass the

keyword argument reverse with value set to True to
the function sorted( )

Example:
nums=(7,4,9,1)
print(sorted(nums,reverse=True))
print(nums)

Output:
 The tuple( ) Function

 The tuple( ) function converts an iterable i.e list , range,

set , dictionary and string to a tuple.
Syntax:
tuple(iterable)

Example:
city="bhopal"
x=tuple(city)
print(x)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

n=20
x=tuple(n)
print(x)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

n="20"
x=tuple(n)
print(x)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

l=[10,20,30]
x=tuple(l)
print(x)

Output:
 The any( ) Function

 The any( ) function accepts a Tuple as argument and

returns True if atleast one element of the Tuple is True.
If not, this method returns False. If the Tuple is empty,
then also it returns False
Syntax:
list(iterable)

Example:
x = (1, 3, 4, 0)
print(any(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x = (0, False)
print(any(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x = (0, False, 5)
print(any(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x= ()
print(any(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x= ("","0", "")
print(any(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x= ("",0, "")
print(any(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x= (4)
print(any(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x= (4,)
print(any(x))

Output:
 The all( ) Function

 The all( ) function accepts a Tuple as argument and

returns True if all the elements of the Tuple are True
or if the Tuple is empty .If not, this method returns
False.

Syntax:
all(iterable)

Example:
x = (1, 3, 4, 0)
print(all(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x = (0, False)
print(all(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x = (1,3,4,5)
print(all(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x = (0, False, 5)
print(all(x))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

x= ()
print(all(x))

Output:
 PYTHON
LECTURE 32
 Today’s Agenda

• Tuple-III
• Methods Used With Tuple

• Operations Allowed On Tuple

 Tuple Methods

 As mentioned previously a Tuple is immutable.

 So only those methods work with it which do not change the
tuple data
 Can you figure out which of these methods work with
tuples ?
 These are: Answer:
 append()
 extend() Only index( ) and count( ).
 insert() Rest all the methods change the
 index() sequence object on which they
 count() have been called.
 remove()
 pop()
 clear()
 sort()
 reverse()
 The index( ) Method

 The index() method searches an element in the tuple and

returns it’s index.
 If the element occurs more than once it returns it’s
smallest/first position.
 If element is not found, it raises a ValueError exception

Syntax:
tuple_var.index(item)
Output:
Example:
primes=(2,3,5,7)
pos=primes.index(5)
print("position of 5 is",pos)
 Guess The Output ?

vowels = ('a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'i', 'u')

pos = vowels.index('e')
print('The index of e:',pos)
pos = vowels.index('i')
print('The index of i:',pos)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

mynums = (10,20,30,40,50)
p = mynums.index(20)
print("20 occurs at",p,"position")
p = mynums.index(60)
print("60 occurs at",p,"position")
p = mynums.index(10)
print("10 occurs at",p,"position")
Output:
 The count( ) Method

 The count() method returns the number of

occurrences of an element in a tuple

 In simple terms, it counts how many times an element has

occurred in a tuple and returns it.

Syntax:
tuple_var.count(item)
Output:
Example:
country=('i','n','d','i','a')
x=country.count('i')
print("i occurs",x,"times in",country)
 Guess The Output ?

vowels = ('a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'i', 'u')

x = vowels.count('i')
print("i occurs",x,"times")
x = vowels.count('e')
print("e occurs",x,"times")
x = vowels.count('j')
print("j occurs",x,"times")

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

points = (1, 4, 2, 9, 7, 8, 9, 3, 1)
x = points.count(9)
print("9 occurs",x,"times")

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

strings = ('Cat', 'Bat', 'Sat', 'Cat', 'cat', 'Mat')

x=strings.count("Cat")
print("Cat occurs",x,"times")

Output:
 Operations Allowed On Tuple

 We can apply four types of operators on Tuple objects

 These are:

 Membership Operators

 Concatenation Operator

 Multiplication

 Relational Operators
 Membership Operators

 We can apply the ‘in’ and ‘not in’ operators on tuple.

 This tells us whether an item belongs / not belongs to

tuple.
 Guess The Output ?

my_tuple = ('a','p','p','l','e',)
print('a' in my_tuple)
print('b' in my_tuple)
print('g' not in my_tuple)

Output:
 Concatenation On Tuple

 Concatenation is the act of joining.

 We can join two tuples using the concatenation

operator ‘+’.

 All other arithmetic operators are not allowed to work on

two tuples.

 However * works but as a repetition operator

 Guess The Output ?

odds=(1,3,5)
evens=(2,4,6)
all=odds+evens
print(all)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

ages=(10,20,30)
names=("amit","deepak","ravi")
students=ages+names
print(students)

Output:
 Multiplication On Tuple

 Python allows us to multiply a tuple by a constant

 To do this , as usual we use the operator *

 Guess The Output ?

a=(10,20,30)
b=a*3
print(b)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

a=(10,20,30)
b=a*3.0
print(b)

Output:
 Relational Operators
On Tuples

 The relational operators work with tuples and other

sequences.

 Python starts by comparing the first element from each

sequence.

 If they are equal, it goes on to the next element, and so

on, until it finds elements that differ.

 Subsequent elements are not considered (even if they

are really big).
 Guess The Output ?

a=(1,2,3)
b=(1,3,4)
print(a<b)

Output:
True
 Guess The Output ?

a=(1,3,2)
b=(1,2,3)
print(a<b)

Output:
False
 Guess The Output ?

a=(1,3,2)
b=(1,3,2)
print(a<b)

Output:
False
 Guess The Output ?

a=(1,2,3)
b=(1,2,3,4)
print(a<b)

Output:
True
 Guess The Output ?

a=(5,2,7)
b=(1,12,14)
print(a>b)

Output:
True
 Guess The Output ?

a=()
b=(0)
print(a<b)

Output:
TypeError : < not supported between instances of
‘tuple’ and ‘int’
 Guess The Output ?

a=()
b=(0,)
print(a<b)

Output:
True
 Guess The Output ?

a=(1,2)
b=("one","two")
print(a<b)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

a=(1,"one")
b=(1,"two")
print(a<b)

Output:
True
 PYTHON
LECTURE 33
 Today’s Agenda

• Strings -I
• What Is A String ?
• Creating A String
• Different Ways Of Accessing Strings
• Operators Which Work On Strings
 What Is A String ?

 A Python string is a sequence of zero or more characters.

 It is an immutable data structure.

 This means that we although we can access the internal

data elements of a string object but we can not change it’s
contents
 How Can Strings Be Created ?

 Python provides us 3 ways to create string objects:

 By enclosing text in single quotes

 By enclosing text in double quotes

 By enclosing text in triple quotes (generally used for multiline

strings)
 Example

my_string = 'Hello'
print(my_string)
my_string = "Hello"
print(my_string)
my_string = '''Hello'''
print(my_string)
my_string = """Hello, welcome to
the world of Python"""
print(my_string)
Output:
 How Can Strings
Be Accessed ?

 Python provides us 3 ways to access string objects:

 Directly passing it to the print( ) function

 Accessing individual elements using subscript operator [ ]

 Accessing multiple elements using slice operator [ : ]

 Printing The Whole String

city="Bhopal"
print(city)

Output:
Bhopal
 Accessing Individual
Elements

 A string in Python has indexes running from 0 to size-1

 For example:

 city=“Bhopal”

 The above code will create a logical diagram in memory,

where positive indexing will go from 0 to 5 and negative
indexing from -1 to -6
Accessing Individual Elements
 Accessing Individual Elements

city="Bhopal"
print(city[0])
print(city[1])
print(city[-1])
print(city[-2])

Output:
B
h
l
a
 Guess The Output ?

city="Bhopal"
print(city[6])

Output:
IndexError: String index out of range
 Guess The Output ?

city="Bhopal"
print(city[1.5])

Output:
TypeError: String indices must be integers
 Accessing String Elements Using
while Loop

city="Bhopal"
i=0
Just like len( )
while i<len(city): works with lists
print(city[i]) and tuple
i=i+1 similarly it also
works with string
returns number of
Output: elements in the
B string

h
o
p
a
l
 Accessing String Elements Using
for Loop

city="Bhopal"
for ch in city: Since string is a
print(ch) sequence type , so
for loop can
Output: iterate over
B individual
elements of the
h string
o
p
a
l
 Exercise

 Redesign the previous code using for loop only to

traverse the string in reverse order. Don’t use slice
operator
 Solution

city="Bhopal"
for i in range(len(city)-1,-1,-1):
print(city[i])

Output:
l
a
p
o
h
B
 Slice Operator With String

 Just like we can apply slice operator with lists and tuples,
similarly Python allows us to apply slice operator with
strings also.

 Syntax: string_var[x:y]

• x denotes the start index of slicing and y denotes the end

index . But Python ends slicing at y-1 index.
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

city="Bhopal"
city="Bhopal"
print(city[3:5])
print(city[1:4])

• Output:
• Output:
pa
hop
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

city="Bhopal"
city="Bhopal"
print(city[0:10])
print(city[0:4])

• Output:
• Output:
Bhopal
Bhop
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

city="Bhopal"
city="Bhopal"
print(city[6:10])
print(city[2:2])

• Output:
• Output:
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

city="Bhopal"
city="Bhopal"
print(city[:4])
print(city[1:])

• Output:
• Output:
Bhop
hopal
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

city="Bhopal"
city="Bhopal"
print(city[-2:])
print(city[:-2])

• Output:
• Output:
al
Bhop
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

city="Bhopal"
city="Bhopal"
print(city[-2:-2])
print(city[-2:1])

• Output:
• Output:
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

city="Bhopal"
city="Bhopal"
print(city[-2:5])
print(city[-2:2])

• Output:
• Output:
a
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

city="Bhopal"
city="Bhopal"
print(city[1:-2])
print(city[-4:3])

• Output:
• Output:
hop
o
 Using Step Value

• String slicing can accept a third parameter also after the

two index numbers.

• The third parameter is called step value.

• So the complete syntax of slicing operator is:

s[begin:end:step]

• Step value indicates how many characters to move forward

after the first character is retrieved from the string and it’s
default value is 1 , but can be changed as per our choice.
 Using Step Value

• Another point to understand is that if step is positive

or not mentioned then
• Movement is in forward direction ( L→R)
• Default for start is 0 and end is len

• But if step is negative , then

• Movement is in backward direction (R→L)
• Default for start is -1 and end is –(len+1)
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

city="Bhopal"
city="Bhopal"
print(city[1:4:0])
print(city[1:4:2])

• Output:
• Output:
ValueError: Slice
hp
step cannot be
0
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

city="Bhopal"
city="Bhopal"
print(city[4:1:-1])
print(city[4:1:1])

• Output:
• Output:
apo
 The Slicing Operator

• Example: • Example:

city="Bhopal"
city="Bhopal" print(city[::-1])
print(city[::])

• Output:
• Output: lapohB
Bhopal
 The Operators
With Strings

 There are 6 operators which work on Strings:

 + : For joining 2 strings

 * : For creating multiple copies of a string

 in : For searching a substring in a string

 not in: Opposite of in

 Relational Operator : For comparing 2 strings

 Identity Operators : For comparing addresses

 The Operator +

The + operator concatenates strings. It returns a string

consisting of the operands joined together

Example:
a="Good"
b="Morning"
c="User"
print(a+b+c)

Output:
GoodMorningUser
 The Operator *

 The * operator creates multiple copies of a string.

Example:
a="Bye"
print(a*2)
print(2*a)

Output:
ByeBye
ByeBye
 Guess The Output ?

a="Bye"
print(a*0) The * operator
print(a*-2) allows it’s
operand to be
negative or 0 in
Output: which case it
returns an empty
string
 Guess The Output ?

x="Ba"+"na"*2
print(x)

Output:
Banana
 The Operator in

 The in operator returns True if the first operand is

contained within the second, and False otherwise:

Example:
a="banana"
print(“nana” in a)
print(“nani” in a)

Output:
True
False
 The Operator not in

 The not in operator behaves opposite of in and

returns True if the first operand is not contained within
the second, and False otherwise:

Example:
a="banana"
print(“nana” not in a)
print(“nani” not in a)

Output:
False
True
 The Relational Operators

 We can use ( > , < , <= , >= , == , != ) to compare two strings.

 Python compares string lexicographically i.e using Unicode

value of the characters.
Example: Output:

False
"tim" == "tie" True
"free" != "freedom" True
"arrow" > "aron" True
"right" >= "left“ False
"teeth" < "tee" False
"yellow" <= "fellow" True
"abc" > " "
 The Identity Operators

 ‘is’ operator returns True if both the operand point to same

memory location.
 ’is not’ operator returns True if both the operand point to
different memory location.

Example: Output:
a = 'London'
b = 'London' True
c = 'Paris' False
print(a is b) False
print(a is c) False
print(b is c) True
print(b is not a)
print(b is not c)
 PYTHON
LECTURE 34
 Today’s Agenda

• Strings -II
• Built In String Functions
• Printing string using f-string
• Calculating time for code snippets
• Modifying Strings
 Built In String Functions

 There are some built-in functions in Python that we can

use on strings.

 These are:
 len()
 max()
 min()
 chr()
 ord()
 The len( ) Function

 Returns the number of charcters in the string

Example:
name="Sachin"
print(len(name))

Output:
6
 The max( ) Function

 Returns a character which is alphabetically the highest

character in the string.

Example:
name="bhopal"
print(max(name))

Output:
p
 Guess The Output ?

str="abc123#$.y@*"
print(max(str))

Output:
y
 Guess The Output ?

str="False,True"
print(max(str))

Output:
u
 Guess The Output ?

str="1.1,0.4,1.9"
print(max(str))

Output:
9
 The min( ) Function

 Returns a character which is alphabetically the lowest

character in the string.

Example:
name="bhopal"
print(min(name))

Output:
a
 Guess The Output ?

str=“Bhopal"
print(min(str))

Output:
B
 Guess The Output ?

str="abc123#$.y@*"
print(min(str))

Output:
#
 Guess The Output ?

str="1.1,0.4,1.9"
print(min(str))

Output:
,
 The chr( ) Function

 Returns a character (a string) of the unicode value

passed as an integer.

 The valid range of the argument is from 0 through

1,114,111.

Example:
print(chr(122))

Output:
z
 Guess The Output ?

print(chr(43))

Output:
+
 Guess The Output ?

print(chr(1))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

print(chr(0))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

print(chr(-1))

Output:
ValueError: chr() argument not in range
 The ord( ) Function

 Returns an integer of the unicode value passed as an

character.

 But the argument passed should be only 1 character in

length.

Example:
print(ord(‘a’))

Output:
97
 Guess The Output ?

print(ord("+"))

Output:
43
 Guess The Output ?

print(ord("5"))

Output:
53
 The str( ) Function

 Returns a string representation of an object.

 We can pass object of any type and Python will convert it to

string

Example:
print(str(49.2))

Output:
49.2
 Guess The Output ?

print(str(True))

Output:
True
 Guess The Output ?

print(str(25))

Output:
25
 String Interpolation

 In Python version 3.6, a new string formatting

mechanism was introduced.

 This feature is called String Interpolation , but is more

usually referred to by its nickname f-string.
 String Interpolation

 To understand this feature , can you tell how can we print the
following 2 variables using print( ):

name=“Sachin”
age=34

 Till now , we know 3 ways:

1. print(“My name is”,name,”and my age is”,age)

2. print(“My name is {0} and my age is

{1}”.format(name,age))
3. print(“My name is %s and my age is %d”%(name,age))
 String Interpolation

 But , from Python 3.6 onwards , there is much more simpler

way to print them which is called f-string.

 f-strings have an f at the beginning and curly braces

containing expressions that will be replaced with their
values.

 The expressions are evaluated at runtime and then formatted

name="Sachin"
age=34
print(f"My name is {name} and my age is {age}")
 Arbitary Expressions

 Because f-strings are evaluated at runtime, we can put any

valid Python expressions in them

a=10
b=20
print(f"sum is {a+b}")

Output:
 Function Calls

 We could also call functions. Here’s an example:

import math
a=10
b=20
print(f"max of {a} and {b} is {max(a,b)}")
print(f"Factorial of {a} is {math.factorial(10)}")

Output:
 Method Calls

 We could also call methods. Here’s an example:

vowels=["a","e","i","o","u","a"]
ch="a"
print(f"{ch} is occuring in {vowels}
{vowels.count(ch)} times")

Output:
 PYTHON
LECTURE 35
 Today’s Agenda

• Strings -III
• String Methods
 String Methods

 A string object has a number of method or member

functions.

 These can be grouped into different categories .

 These categories are:

 String conversion methods
 String comparison methods
 String searching methods
 String replace methods
 String Conversion Methods

 capitalize( )
Returns a copy of the string with first character
capitalized and rest of the characters in lower case.

Example:
name="guido van rossum"
newname=name.capitalize()
print(f"Original name is {name}\nCapitalized name is {newname}")
Output:
 String Conversion Methods

name="Guido Van Rossum"

newname=name.capitalize()
print(f"Original name is {name}\nCapitalized name is {newname}")

Output:
 String Conversion Methods

text="python is awesome. java rocks"

newtext=text.capitalize()
print(f"Original text is {text}\nCapitalized text is {newtext}")

Output:
 String Conversion Methods

 lower( ) and upper( )

Returns a copy of the string with all letters converted to
lowercase and uppercase respectively
Example:
name="Sachin Kapoor"
lc=name.lower()
uc=name.upper()
print(f"Original name is {name}")
print(f"Lower name is {lc}")
print(f"Upper name is {uc}")
Output:
 String Conversion Methods

 swapcase()
Returns a copy of the string with the case of every
character swapped . Means that lowercase characters
are changed to uppercase and vice-versa.
Example:
name="Sachin Kapoor"
newname=name.swapcase()
print(f"Original name is {name}")
print(f"Swapped name is {newname}")
Output:
 String Conversion Methods

 title()
Returns a copy of the string converted to proper case or
title case. i.e. , all words begin with uppercase letter and
the rest are in lowercase.
Example:
text="we got independence in 1947"
newtext=text.title()
print(f"Original text is {text}")
print(f"Title text is {newtext}")
Output:
 String Conversion Methods

text = "i lOVe pYTHoN"

print(text.title())

Output:
 String Conversion Methods

text = "physics,chemistry,maths"
print(text.title())

Output:
 String Conversion Methods

text = "physics_chemistry_maths"
print(text.title())

Output:
 String Conversion Methods

text = "physics1chemistry2maths"
print(text.title())

Output:
 String Conversion Methods

text = "He's an engineer, isn't he?"

print(text.title())

Output:
 String Comparison Methods

 islower( ) and isupper( )

Returns True or False depending on whether all alphabets
in the string are in lowercase and uppercase respectively
 String Comparison Methods

Example:
s = 'this is good'
print(s.islower())

s = 'th!s is a1so g00d'

print(s.islower())

s = 'this is Not good'

print(s.islower())
Output:
 String Comparison Methods

Example:
s = "THIS IS GOOD!"
print(s.isupper())

s = "THIS IS ALSO G00D!"

print(s.isupper())

s= "THIS IS not GOOD!"

print(s.isupper())
Output:
 String Comparison Methods

Example:
s = ""
print(s.isupper())
print(s.islower())

Output:
 String Comparison Methods

 istitle( )

Returns True if the string is in titlecase or empty ,

otherwise returns False
 String Comparison Methods

Example: Output:
s = 'Python Is Good.' True
print(s.istitle()) False
True
s = 'Python is good'
True
print(s.istitle())
False
s = 'This Is @ Symbol.'
print(s.istitle())

s = '99 Is A Number'
print(s.istitle())

s = 'PYTHON'
print(s.istitle())
 String Comparison Methods

 isalpha( )

Returns True if the string contains only alphabets ,

otherwise returns False
 String Comparison Methods

Example: Output:
name = "Monalisa" True
print(name.isalpha()) False
False
name = "M0nalisa"
print(name.isalpha())

name = "Monalisa Shah"

print(name.isalpha())
 String Comparison Methods

 isdigit( )

Returns True if the string contains only digits , otherwise

returns False
 String Comparison Methods

Example: Output:
text = "12345" True
print(text.isdigit()) True
False
text = "012345" False
print(text.isdigit())

text = "12345 6"

print(text.isdigit())

text = “a12345"
print(text.isdigit())
 String Comparison Methods

 isdecimal( )

Returns True if the string contains only

decimal characters , otherwise returns False
 String Comparison Methods

Example: Output:
text = "12345" True
print(text.isdecimal()) True
False
text = "012345"
False
print(text.isdecimal())

text = "12345 6"

print(text.isdecimal())

text = “a12345"
print(text.isdecimal())
 String Comparison Methods

 isnumeric( )

Returns True if the string contains only

numeric characters , otherwise returns False
 String Comparison Methods

Example: Output:
text = "12345" True
print(text.isnumeric()) True
False
text = "012345" False
print(text.isnumeric())

text = "12345 6"

print(text.isnumeric())

text = “a12345"
print(text.isnumeric())
 isdigit( ) V/s isdecimal( ) V/s
isnumeric( )

 To understand the difference between isdigit( ) , isdecimal( )

and isnumeric( ) , we will first have to understand what
Python considers as digits , decimal or numerics for
special symbols

 In Python:

 superscript and subscripts (usually written using unicode) are also

considered digit characters , numeric characters but not decimals.

 roman numerals, currency numerators and fractions (usually

written using unicode) are considered numeric characters but not
digits or decimals
 String Comparison Methods

Example: Output:
s = '\u00B23455'
print(s)
print(s.isdigit())
print(s.isdecimal())
print(s.isnumeric())
s = '\u00BD'
print(s)
print(s.isdigit())
print(s.isdecimal())
print(s.isnumeric())
 String Comparison Methods

 isalnum( )

Returns True if the string contains only alphanumeric

characters , otherwise returns False
 String Comparison Methods

Example: Output:
name = "M234onalisa" True
print(name.isalnum()) False
True
name = "M3ona Shah " True
print(name.isalnum())

name = "Mo3nalisaSha22ah"
print(name.isalnum())

name = "133"
print(name.isalnum())
 String Comparison Methods

 isspace( )

Returns True if the string contains only whitespace

characters , otherwise returns False
 String Comparison Methods

Example: Output:
s = ' \t' True
print(s.isspace()) False
True
s='a' False
print(s.isspace())

s=''
print(s.isspace())

s = ''
print(s.isspace())
 String Comparison Methods

 startswith( )

 The startswith() method takes maximum of three

parameters:
 prefix - String to be checked
 start (optional) - Beginning position where prefix is to be checked
within the string.
 end (optional) - Ending position where prefix is to be checked within
the string.
 It returns True if the string starts with the specified
prefix , otherwise returns False
 String Comparison Methods

Example: Output:
text = "Python is easy to learn." False
True
result = text.startswith('is easy')
True
print(result)
True
result = text.startswith('Python is ')
print(result)

result = text.startswith('Python is easy to learn.')

print(result)

result = text.startswith('is easy',7)

print(result)
 String Comparison Methods

 endswith( )

 The endswith() method takes maximum of three

parameters:
 suffix - String to be checked
 start (optional) - Beginning position where suffix is to be checked
within the string.
 end (optional) - Ending position where suffix is to be checked within
the string.
 It returns True if the string ends with the specified
suffix , otherwise returns False
 String Comparison Methods

Example:
text = "Python is easy to learn." Output:
False
result = text.endswith('to learn')
print(result)
True
True
result = text.endswith('to learn.')
print(result)
False
False
result = text.endswith('learn.', 7) True
print(result)

result = text.endswith('is', 7, 13)

print(result)

result = text.endswith('easy', 7, 13)

print(result)

result = text.endswith('easy', 7, 14)

print(result)
 String Searching Methods

 index( )
Returns the index of first occurrence of a substring
inside the string (if found).

If the substring is not found, it raises an exception.

Syntax:The index() method takes three parameters:

 sub - substring to be searched in the string str.
 start and end(optional) - substring is searched within str[start:end]
 String Searching Methods

Example: Output:
text= 'Sunday is a fun day' 7
3
result = text.index('is a fun') 16
print(result) ValueError

result = text.index('day')
print(result)

result = text.index('day',7)
print(result)

result = text.index('night')
print(result)
 String Searching Methods

 find( )
Returns the first index of a substring inside the string (if
found).
If the substring is not found, it returns -1

Syntax:The find() method takes three parameters:

 sub - substring to be searched in the string str.
 start and end(optional) - substring is searched within str[start:end]
 String Searching Methods

Example: Output:
text= 'Sunday is a fun day' 7
3
result = text.find('is a fun') 16
print(result) -1

result = text.find('day')
print(result)

result = text.find('day',7)
print(result)

result = text.find('night')
print(result)
 String Searching Methods

 rfind( )
Returns the highest index of a substring inside the string
(if found).

If the substring is not found, it returns -1

Syntax:The rfind() method takes three parameters:

 sub - substring to be searched in the string str.
 start and end(optional) - substring is searched within str[start:end]
 String Searching Methods

Example: Output:
text= 'Sunday is a fun day' 7
16
result = text.rfind('is a fun') 3
print(result) -1

result = text.rfind('day')
print(result)

result = text.rfind('day',0)
print(result)

result = text.rfind('night')
print(result)
 String Searching Methods

 count( )
Returns the number of occurrences of a substring in the
given string

If the substring is not found, it returns 0

Syntax:The count() method takes three parameters:

 sub - substring to be searched in the string str.
 start and end(optional) - substring is searched within str[start:end]
 String Searching Methods

Example: Output:
text = "Python is awesome, isn't it?" 2
substring = "is" 1
0
count = text.count(substring)
print(count)
substring = "i"
count = text.count(substring, 8, 25)
print(count)
substring="ton"
count = text.count(substring)
print(count)
 String Replacement Methods

 replace( )
Returns a copy of the string where all occurrences of a substring is
replaced with another substring.

Syntax:The replace() method takes three parameters:

 old - old substring we want to replace
 new - new substring which would replace the old substring
 count (optional) - the number of times we want to replace the old substring with
the new substring

 The replace() method returns a copy of the string where old substring is
replaced with the new substring. The original string is unchanged.

 If the old substring is not found, it returns the copy of the original string.
 String Replacement Methods

Example: Output:
text = "Blue Blue Blue" Black Black Black
newtext= text.replace("ue","ack") Black Black Blue
Blue Blue Blue
print(newtext)
newtext= text.replace("ue","ack",2)
print(newtext)
newtext= text.replace("eu","ack")
print(newtext)
 String Replacement Methods

 strip( )
Returns a copy of the string with both leading and trailing
characters removed (based on the string argument passed).

Syntax:The strip() method takes one optional parameter:

 chars (optional) - a string specifying the set of characters to be
removed.

 If the chars argument is not provided, all leading and

trailing whitespaces are removed from the string.
 String Replacement Methods

Example: Output:
text = " Good Morning " Original text:[ Good Morning ]
newtext= text.strip() New text:[Good Morning]
print("Original text:["+text+"]")
print("New text:["+newtext+"]")
 Exercise

Write a program to simulate user registration process. Your

code should do the following:
1. It should first ask the user to input his full name. If he doesn’t
enter his full name then program should display the error
message and again ask the user to enter full name . Repeat the
process until the user types his full name.[ full name means a
string with atleast 2 words separated with a space]
2. Then it should ask the use to input his password. The rules for
password are:
1. It should contain atleast 8 lcharacters
2. It should contain atleast 1 digit and 1 upper case letter
Repeat the process until the user correctly types his
Password.
Finally , display the user’s first name with a THANK YOU
message. Create separate functions for accepting fullname ,
password and returning firstname
Sample Output
 Solution

def get_full_name():
while True:
name=input("Type your full name:").strip()
if name.find(" ")!=-1:
return name
print("Please enter your full name!")

def get_password():
while True:
pwd=input("Type your password:")
cap_letter_present=False
digit_present=False
for x in pwd:
if x.isdigit():
digit_present=True
elif x.isupper():
cap_letter_present=True
if digit_present==False or cap_letter_present==False or len(pwd)<8:
print("Password must be of 8 or more characters in length\nwith atleast 1 digit and 1 capital
letter")
else:
return pwd
def get_first_name(fullname):
spacepos=fullname.find(" ")
return fullname[0:spacepos]

fullname=get_full_name()
pwd=get_password()
firstname=get_first_name(fullname)
print("Hello",firstname,"\nThank you for joining us!")
 String Replacement Methods

 split( )
The split() method breaks up a string at the specified
separator and returns a list of strings.

Syntax:The split() method takes two parameters:

 separator (optional)- This is the delimiter. The string splits at the
specified separator .If the separator is not specified, any
whitespace (space, newline etc.) string is a separator.
 maxsplit (optional) - The maxsplit defines the maximum number
of splits.The default value of maxsplit is -1, meaning, no limit on
the number of splits.

The split() breaks the string at the separator and returns a list of
strings.
 String Replacement Methods

Example: Output:
text= 'Live and let live' [‘Live’,’and’,’let’,’live’]
print(text.split()) [‘Milk’,’ Butter’,’ Bread’]
[‘Milk,Butter,Bread’]
grocery = 'Milk, Butter, Bread'
print(grocery.split(', '))
print(grocery.split(':'))
 String Replacement Methods

 join( )
The join() method returns a string concatenated with the
elements of an iterable.

But the iterable should only contain strings

The join() method takes an iterable - objects capable of

returning its members one at a time

Syntax: <str>.join(<iterable>)
 String Replacement Methods

Example:
mylist = ["C","C++","Java","Python"]
s = "->"
print(s.join(mylist))

Output:
C→C++→Java→Python
 String Replacement Methods

Example:
letters = 'PYTHON'
letters_spaced = ' '.join(letters)
print(letters_spaced)

Output:
PYTHON
 PYTHON
LECTURE 36
 Today’s Agenda

• Dictionary-I
• What Is A Dictionary ?
• What Is Key-Value Pair ?
• Creating A Dictionary
• Important Characteristics Of A Dictionary
• Different Ways To Access A Dictionary
• An Important Point
 What Is A Dictionary ?

 Python dictionary is an unordered collection of

items.

 The collections we have studied till now like list , tuple

and string are all ordered collections as well as can
hold only one value as their element

 On the other hand dictionary is an unordered

collection which holds the data in a key: value pair.
 What Is Key-Value Pair?

 Sometimes we need to store the data so that one piece of

information is connected to another piece of information.

 For example RollNo→Student Name or

Customer Name→Mobile Number

 In these examples RollNo will be called a key while it’s

associated Student Name will be called value

 To store such paired data Python provides us the data type

called dictionary
 How To Create A Dictionary?

 Creating a dictionary is as simple as placing items inside

curly braces { } separated by comma.

 Every item has a key and the corresponding value

expressed as a pair, key: value.

 While values can be of any data type and can repeat,

but keys must be of immutable type and must be
unique.
 General Syntax Of
Creating A Dictionary

Syntax:

d={
<key>: <value>,
<key>: <value>,
...
<key>: <value>
}
 How To Create A Dictionary?

# empty dictionary
my_dict = { }

# dictionary with integer keys

my_dict = {1: 'Amit', 2: 'Brajesh',3:'Chetan'}

# dictionary with mixed keys

my_dict = {1: 'John', 'a':'vowel'}

# dictionary with list as values

my_dict = {'Rahul':['C', 'C++'], 'Ajay':['Java', 'C', 'Python'],
'Neeraj':['Oracle', 'Python']}
 Important Characteristics
Of Dictionaries

 The important characteristics of Python dictionaries are as

follows:

 They can be nested.

 They are mutable.

 They are dynamic.

 They are unordered.

 Unlike Lists and tuples , a dictionary item is accessed by it’s

corresponding key not index
 Other Ways Of Creating
Dictionary

 We also can create a list by using the dict( ) function

# Create an empty dictionary

my_dict = dict()

# Create a dictionary with elements

my_dict = dict({1:'apple', 2:'ball'})

# Create a dictionary with other sequences

my_dict = dict([(1,'apple'), (2,'ball')])
 Printing The Dictionary

 We can print a dictionary in four ways:

 Directly passing it to the print( ) function

 Accessing individual values by passing keys to subscript

operator [ ]

 Accessing individual values by passing keys to the method

get( )

 Traversing using loop

 Printing The
Entire Dictionary

student_data = {1:'Amit', 2:'Brajesh',3:'Chetan',

4:'Deepak',5:'Neeraj'}

print(student_data)

Output:
 Accessing Individual
Elements

 As mentioned previously, keys are used to retrieve their

corresponding values in Python dictionary.

 Keys can be used inside subscript operator [ ] or we

can use Python built-in function get() to access the
values in the dictionary using keys.
 Accessing Individual
Elements

student_data = {1:'Amit', 2:'Brajesh',3:'Chetan',

4:'Deepak',5:'Neeraj'}

print(student_data[3])

print(student_data.get(3))

Output:
 Difference Between
[ ] And get( )

 Although both subscript operator and get( ) method

allow us to access individual element using it’s key , but
there is an important difference in them.

 The difference is that when we try to access a value whose

key doesn’t exist in the dictionary using subscript
operator , it throws a KeyError.

 But when we try to access using get() method, instead of

throwing KeyError, it returns nothing which in Python
is None.
 Difference Between
[ ] And get( )

student_data = {1:'Amit', 2:'Brajesh',3:'Chetan',

4:'Deepak',5:'Neeraj'}

print("Name of student with roll no

6:",student_data.get(6))

print("Name of student with roll no

6:",student_data[6])
Output:
 Traversing A Dictionary

 Python allows us three ways to traverse over a dictionary:

 Iterate only on keys

 Iterate on both , keys and values

 Iterate only on values

 Iterate Only On Keys

 When for ... in is used on a dictionary, looping is by

default done over its keys, and not over the values or the
key:value pairs:
 Iterate Only On Keys

student_data = {1:'Amit', 2:'Brajesh',3:'Chetan',

4:'Deepak',5:'Neeraj'}

for roll in student_data:

print("Roll:",roll)

Output:
 Another Way To
Iterate Only On Keys

 Python provides us a method called keys() which will

return all keys inside given dictionary as Python list

 Then this list will be iterated with for loop.

 Iterate Only On Keys

student_data = {1:'Amit', 2:'Brajesh',3:'Chetan',

4:'Deepak',5:'Neeraj'}

for roll in student_data.keys():

print("Roll:",roll)

Output:
 How to get values ?

 Once , we have keys , we can fetch the values by using

subscript operator or get( ) method during each loop
cycle.
 Iterate Only On Keys

student_data = {1:'Amit', 2:'Brajesh',3:'Chetan',

4:'Deepak',5:'Neeraj'}

for roll in student_data:

print("Roll:",roll,"Name:",student_data[roll])

Output:
 A Performance Issue ?

 Although the code is working , but it has a performance

issue .

 Can you tell what it is ?

 We are iterating over all the keys in dictionary and for

each key we are again searching for its associated value ,
which is not at all an efficient solution
 A Much Better Solution

 To resolve the performance issue , we have a much better

solution provided by Python .

 The solution is to use the method items( )

 This method returns a dict_item object that contains a

list of dictionary's (key, value) pairs as tuple.
 Syntax Of Using items( )

 Syntax:

for <var 1,var 2> in <dict_var>.items( ):

# var 1 will hold , var 2 will hold value

 Explanation:

When we define two variables in a for loop in conjunction

with a call to items() on a dictionary, Python automatically
assigns the first variable as the name of a key in that
dictionary, and the second variable as the corresponding
value for that key.
 Iterate Only On Keys

student_data = {1:'Amit', 2:'Brajesh',3:'Chetan',

4:'Deepak',5:'Neeraj'}

for roll,name in student_data.items():

print("Roll:",roll,"Name:",name)

Output:
 Iterate Only On Values

 We can only iterate over values also without using any

key.

 To do this we can use values() method provided by

dictionary type which will populate values in given
dictionary in an iterable format.

 We can then put these values of dictionary in each step

into variable v and access it
 Iterate Only On Values

student_data = {1:'Amit', 2:'Brajesh',3:'Chetan',

4:'Deepak',5:'Neeraj'}

for name in student_data.values():

print("Name:",name)

Output:
 A Very Important Point !

 If you remember , while introducing the dictionary we

mentioned that it is an unordered collection.

 The term unordered means that the order in which

elements are inserted in a dictionary and the order in
which they are retrieved might be different
 A Very Important Point !

 But you must have observed that it was not the case with
us.

 Have look at the examples :

student_data = {1:'Amit', 2:'Brajesh',3:'Chetan', 4:'Deepak',5:'Neeraj'}
print(student_data)

Output:

 If you can observe , the output is in the same order as we

inserted the data.
 Why is it so ?

 As of Python 3.6, for the CPython implementation of

Python, dictionaries remember the order of items
inserted.

 This was considered an implementation detail in Python

3.6 and we need to use OrderedDict if we want insertion
ordering that's guaranteed across other implementations of
Python

 As of Python 3.7, this is no longer an implementation

detail and instead becomes a language feature.

 This simply means that other implementations of Python must

also offer an insertion ordered dictionary if they wish to be a
conforming implementation of Python 3.7.
 PYTHON
LECTURE 37
 Today’s Agenda

• Dictionary-II
• Updating Elements In Dictionary
• Removing Elements From Dictionary
• Functions Used In Dictionary
 Updating A Dictionary

 Since dictionary is mutable, so we can add new items or

change the value of existing items using either of two
ways.

 These are:

 assignment operator or

 update( ) method of dictionary object

 Updating Using
Assignment Operator

 Syntax Of Assigment Operator:

dict_var[key]=value

 When we use assignment operator , Python simply

searches for the key in the dictionary object.

 If the key is found , it’s value is replaced with the value

we have passed, otherwise a new key-value pair entry
is created
 Guess The Output ?

student_data = {1:'Amit', 2:'Brajesh',3:'Chetan',

4:'Deepak',5:'Neeraj'}
print("Before updating:")
print(student_data)
student_data[2]='Brajendra'
print("After updating:")
print(student_data)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

student_data = {1:'Amit', 2:'Brajesh',3:'Chetan',

4:'Deepak',5:'Neeraj'}
print("Before updating:")
print(student_data)
student_data[8]='Ankit‘
print("After updating:")
print(student_data)

Output:
 Updating Using
update( ) Method

 Syntax Of update( ) Method:

dict_var.update( dict_var2)

 The update( ) method merges the keys and values of one

dictionary into another, overwriting values of the same
key
 Guess The Output ?

student_data = {1:'Amit', 2:'Brajesh',3:'Chetan',

4:'Deepak',5:'Neeraj'}
student_data2={2:'Brajendra',8:'Ankit'}
print("Before updating:")
print(student_data)
student_data.update(student_data2)
print("After updating:")
print(student_data)
Output:
 Exercise

Write a program to create a dictionary called accounts

containing account id and balance of account holders .
Initialize it with the following data:
101: 50000
102:45000
103:55000
Now ask the user to input an account id and amount . If
the account id is present in the dictionary then update the
balance by adding the amount given otherwise add a new
entry of account id and balance in the dictionary. Finally
print all the accounts details.
Sample Output
 Solution

accounts={101:50000,102:45000,103:55000}
print("Current Accounts Present")
print(accounts)
id=int(input("Enter account id:"))
amt=int(input("Enter amount:"))
balance=accounts.get(id)
if balance == None:
accounts[id]=amt
print("New Account Created")
else:
newbalance=balance+amt
accounts[id]=newbalance
print("Account updated")
print("Account Details:")
print(accounts)
 Removing Data From
Dictionary

 Since dictionary is mutable, so we can remove items from the

dictionary.

 There are certain methods available in Python to delete the items

or delete entire dictionary.

 These are:

 pop(key): removes the entry with provided key and returns it’s value

 popitem(): same as pop(), the difference being that popitem()

removes an arbitary item and returns the (key,value) pair

 del: deletes a single item or the dictionary entirely

 clear(): clears all the items in the dictionary and returns an empty
dictionary
 The pop() Method

 Syntax Of pop( ) Method:

dict_var.pop(key,[default])

 The pop() method takes two parameters:

 key - key which is to be searched for removal
 default - (optional) value which is to be returned when the key is not in the
dictionary
 Return Value From pop( )
 If key is found – it returns value of removed/popped element from the
dictionary
 If key is not found – it returns the value specified as the second argument
(default)
 If key is not found and default argument is not specified – it
raises KeyError exception
 Guess The Output ?

sixMonths = {"Jan":31, "Feb":28, "Mar":31, "Apr":30, "May":31,

"Jun":30}
print(sixMonths)
print(sixMonths.pop("Jun"))
print(sixMonths)
print(sixMonths.pop("Jul",-1))
print(sixMonths.pop("Jul","Not found"))
print(sixMonths.pop("Jul"))
Output:
 The popitem() Method

 Syntax Of popitem( ) Method:

dict_var.popitem( )

 The popitem() method doesn’t take any parameter

 Return Value From popitem( )

 Selects an arbitary entry to be removed , removes it and

returns that entry as a key-value pair in the form of tuple

 If the dictionary is empty it raises KeyError exception

 Guess The Output ?

threeMonths = {"Jan":31, "Feb":28, "Mar":31}

print(threeMonths)
Did you observe
print(threeMonths.popitem()) something special ?
print(threeMonths)
The method popitem()
print(threeMonths.popitem()) removes the item that was
print(threeMonths) last inserted into the
print(threeMonths.popitem()) dictionary. In versions
before 3.7, the popitem()
print(threeMonths) method removes a
print(threeMonths.popitem()) random item.
print(threeMonths)
Output:
 The del Operator

 Just like list , Python also allows us to delete an item from the
dictionary by calling the operator/keyword del

 Syntax Of del Operator:

del dict_var[key]

 It removes the entry from the dictionary whose key is passed as

argument

 If the key is not found or dictionary is empty it raises

KeyError exception

 If we do not pass the key then del deletes the entire dictionary
object
 Guess The Output ?

threeMonths = {"Jan":31, "Feb":28, "Mar":31}

print(threeMonths)
del threeMonths
print(threeMonths)

Output:
 The clear() Method

 The clear() method removes all items from the

dictionary.

 Syntax Of clear( ) Method:

dict_var.clear( )

 The clear() method doesn’t take any argument

 It returns nothing ( None )

 Guess The Output ?

threeMonths = {"Jan":31, "Feb":28, "Mar":31}

print(threeMonths)
threeMonths.clear()
print(threeMonths)

Output:
 Functions Used With
Dictionary

 Like list , Python allows us to use the following functions

with dictionary object

 len()
 max()
 min()
 any()
 all()
 sorted()
 dict()
 The len( ) Function

 Returns the number of items in the dictionary

Example:
sixMonths = {"Jan":31, "Feb":28, "Mar":31, "Apr":30, "May":31,
"Jun":30}

print(len(sixMonths))
Output:
6
 The max( ) Function

 Returns the greatest key present in the dictionary

Example:
sixMonths = {"Jan":31, "Feb":28, "Mar":31, "Apr":30, "May":31,
"Jun":30}

print(max(sixMonths))

Output:
May
 Guess The Output ?

sixMonths = {"Jan":31, "Feb":28, 3:31, "Apr":30 ,5:31 ,6:30}

print(max(sixMonths))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sixMonths = {1:31, 2:28, 3:31,4:30,5:31,6:30}

print(max(sixMonths))

Output:
6
 Guess The Output ?

data = {False: 10,True: 5}

print(max(data))

Output:
True
 Guess The Output ?

data={False:0,True:1,None:2}
print(max(data))

Output:
 Exercise

Write a program to create a dictionary called players

and accept names of 5 players and their runs from the
user. Now find out the highest score
Sample Output
 Solution

players={}
i=1
while i<=5:
name=input("Enter player name:")
runs=int(input("Enter runs:"))
players[name]=runs
i=i+1
print(players)
runs=max(players.values())
print("Highest runs are :",runs)
 Exercise

Modify the previous code so that you are able to find out
the name of the player also who has scored the highest
score
Sample Output
 Solution

players={}
i=1
while i<=5:
name=input("Enter player name:")
runs=int(input("Enter runs:"))
players[name]=runs
i=i+1
print(players)
max=0
pl=""
for name,runs in players.items():
if runs>max:
max=runs
pl=name
print("Player with top score is",pl,"with score of",max)
 The min( ) Function

 Returns the least item present in the dictionary

Example:
sixMonths = {"Jan":31, "Feb":28, "Mar":31, "Apr":30, "May":31,
"Jun":30}

print(min(sixMonths))

Output:
Apr
 The any( ) Function

 Like list and tuple , any( ) function accepts a dict as

argument and returns True if atleast one element of the
dict is True. If not, this method returns False. If the dict
is empty, then also it returns False

Example:
data={1:31,2:28,3:30}
print(any(data))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

data={0:1,False:2,'':3}
print(any(data))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

data={'0':1,False:2,'':3}
print(any(data))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

data= { }
print(any(data))

Output:
 The all( ) Function

 The all( ) function accepts a dict as argument and returns

True if all the keys of the dict are True or if the List is
empty .If not, this method returns False.

Example:
data={1:31,2:28,3:30,0:10}
print(all(data))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

data={1:31,2:28,3:30}
print(all(data))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

data={'0':1,True:2,' ':3}
print(all(data))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

data= { }
print(all(data))

Output:
 The sorted( ) Function

 Like it is with lists and tuples, the sorted() function

returns a sorted sequence of the keys in the dictionary.

 The sorting is in ascending order, and doesn’t modify the

original Python dictionary.
 Guess The Output ?

sixMonths = {"Jan":31, "Feb":28, "Mar":31, "Apr":30, "May":31,

"Jun":30}
print(sorted(sixMonths))
print(sixMonths)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sixMonths = {"Jan":31, "Feb":28, "Mar":31, "Apr":30,

4:31, 5:30}
print(sorted(sixMonths))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

sixMonths = {"Jan":31, "Feb":28, "Mar":31, "Apr":30,

"May":31, "Jun":30}
print(sorted(sixMonths,reverse=True))

Output:
 The dict( ) Function

 As previously mentioned the dict( ) function can be used to

create dictionaries . It can accept key-value pairs or
iterable or mappings as argument and converts them
into dictionaries

Example:
months = dict(Jan=31,Feb=28)
print('months = ',months)
print(type(months))

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

months = dict([('Jan',31),('Feb',28)])
print('months = ',months)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

months = dict((('Jan',31),('Feb',28)))
print('months = ',months)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

months = dict({'Jan':31,'Feb':28})
print('months = ',months)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

months = dict(12)
print('months = ',months)

Output:
 The kwargs Function
Argument

 To understand kwargs , try to figure out the output of the

code below

Example:
def addnos(x,y,z):
print("sum:",x+y+z)
addnos(10,20,30)
addnos(10,20,30,40,50)
Output:
 The kwargs Function
Argument

 To overcome this problem , we used the technique of

variable length arguments, where we prefix the
function parameter with an asterisk

 This allows us to pass any number of arguments to the

function and inside the function they are received as tuple
 The args Function
Argument

def addnos(*args):
sum=0
for x in args:
sum=sum+x
print("sum:",sum)
addnos(10,20,30)
addnos(10,20,30,40,50)

Output
 The args Function
Argument

 Using *args , we cannot pass keyword arguments

 So , Python has given us a solution for this

,called **kwargs, which allows us to pass the variable
length of keyword arguments to the function.
 The kwargs Function
Argument

 In the function, we use the double asterisk ** before the

parameter name to denote this type of argument.

 The arguments are passed as a dictionary and the name of

the dictionary is the name of parameter

 The keywords become keys and the actual data passed

becomes values
 The kwargs Function
Argument

def show_details(**data):
print("\nData type of argument:",type(data))
for key, value in data.items():
print("{} is {}".format(key,value))

show_details(Firstname="Sachin", Lastname="Kapoor", Age=38,

Phone=9826012345)

show_details(Firstname="Amit", Lastname="Sharma",
Email="[email protected]", Country="India", Age=25,
Phone=9893198931)
The kwargs Function
Argument
 PYTHON
LECTURE 38
 Today’s Agenda

• Dictionary-III
• Dictionary Methods
• Removing Elements From Dictionary
• Functions Used In Dictionary
 Dictionary Methods

 Python provides us following methods to work upon

dictionary object:

 clear()
 copy()
 setdefault()
 get()
 items()
 keys()
 pop()
 popitem()
 update()
 values()
 The copy( ) Method

 This method returns a shallow copy of the dictionary.

Syntax:
dict.copy()

Example:
original = {1:'one', 2:'two'}
new = original.copy()
print('new: ', new)
print('original: ', original)
Output:
 copy( ) v/s =

 When copy() method is used, a new dictionary is

created which is filled with a copy of the data from the
original dictionary.

 When = operator is used, a new reference to the

original dictionary is created.
 Guess The Output ?

original = {1:'one', 2:'two'} original = {1:'one', 2:'two'}

new = original new = original.copy()
new.clear()
new.clear()
print('new: ', new)
print('new: ', new) print('original: ', original)
print('original: ', original)

Output: Output:
 The setdefault( ) Method

 This method method returns the value of a key (if the key is in
dictionary).
 If not, it inserts key with a value to the dictionary.

Syntax:
dict.setdefault(key,[value])

The setdefault() takes maximum of two parameters:

 key - key to be searched in the dictionary
 default_value (optional) - key with a value default_value is inserted to the
dictionary if key is not in the dictionary.
If not provided, the default_value will be None.
The setdefault() returns:
 value of the key if it is in the dictionary
 None if key is not in the dictionary and default_value is not specified
 default_value if key is not in the dictionary and default_value is specified
 Guess The Output ?

cars = {"Maruti":"Ciaz","Hyundai":"Verna","Honda":"Amaze"}
print(cars)
value=cars.setdefault("Hyundai")
print("Value is",value)
print(cars)
value=cars.setdefault("Hyundai","i10")
print("Value is",value)
print(cars)
value=cars.setdefault("Renault")
print("Value is",value)
print(cars)
value=cars.setdefault("Audi","Q7")
print("Value is",value)
print(cars)
Output:
 Using in And not in
With Dictionary

 We can apply the ‘in’ and ‘not in’ operators on a dictionary

to check whether it contains a certain key.

 If the key is present then in returns True ,otherwise it

returns False.

 Similarly , if the key is not present not in returns True ,

otherwise it returns False
 Guess The Output ?

cars = {"Maruti":"Ciaz","Hyundai":"Verna","Honda":"Amaze"}
print(cars)
print("Hyundai is present:","Hyundai" in cars)
print("Audi is present:" ,"Audi" in cars)
print("Renault not present:","Renault" not in cars)

Output:
 Dictionary Comprehension

 Just like we have list comprehension , we also have

dictionary comprehension

 Dictionary Comprehension is a mechanism for

transforming one dictionary into another dictionary.

 During this transformation, items within the original

dictionary can be conditionally included in the new
dictionary and each item can be transformed as needed.
 Syntax For
Dictionary Comprehension

 Syntax:

dict_variable = { key:value for (key,value) in iterable}

 Explanation

 Iterable can be any object on which iteration is possible

 (key,value) is the tuple which will receive these key-value pairs

one at a time

 key:value is the expression or key-value pair which will be

assigned to new dictionary
 Exercise

 Write a program to produce a copy of the

dictionary cars using dictionary comprehension

cars = {"Maruti":"Ciaz","Hyundai":"Verna","Honda":"Amaze"}
newcars={ k:v for (k,v) in cars.items()}
print(newcars)

Output:
 Exercise

 How will you do the same without dictionary

comprehension or copy( ) method ?

cars = {"Maruti":"Ciaz","Hyundai":"Verna","Honda":"Amaze"}
newcars={}
for (k,v) in cars.items():
newcars[k]=v

Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to produce a new dictionary from

the given dictionary with the values of each key
getting doubled

dict1 = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4, 'e': 5}

double_dict1 = {k:v*2 for (k,v) in dict1.items()}
print(double_dict1)

Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to produce a new dictionary from

the given dictionary with the keys of each key
getting doubled

dict1 = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4, 'e': 5}

double_dict1 = {k*2:v for (k,v) in dict1.items()}
print(double_dict1)

Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to accept a string from the user

and print the frequency count of it’s letters , i.e.
how many times each letter is occuring in the
string

Output:
 Solution

str=input("Type a string:")
mydict={ch:str.count(ch) for ch in str}
for k,v in mydict.items():
print(k,":",v)
 Adding Conditions To
Dictionary Comprehension

 Like list comprehension , dictionary comprehension

also allows us to add conditionals to make it more powerful.

 Syntax:
dict_variable = { key:value for (key,value) in iterable <test_cond>}

 As usual , only those key-value pairs will be returned by

dictionary comprehension which satisfy the condition
 Exercise

 Write a program to produce a new dictionary from

the given dictionary but with the values that are
greater than 2

dict1 = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4, 'e': 5}

dict2 = {k:v*2 for (k,v) in dict1.items() if v>2}
print(dict2)

Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to produce a new dictionary from

the given dictionary but with the values that are
greater than 2 as well as multiple of 2

dict1 = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4, 'e': 5}

dict2 = {k:v*2 for (k,v) in dict1.items() if v>2 if v%2==0}
print(dict2)

Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to produce a new dictionary from

the given dictionary but with the value should be
the string “EVEN” for even values and “ODD” for
odd values

dict1 = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4, 'e': 5}

dict2= {k:'even' if v%2==0 else 'odd' for (k,v) in dict1.items()}
print(dict2)

Output:
 Restrictions On
Dictionary Keys

1. Almost any type of value can be used as a dictionary key in

Python , like integer, float, Boolean etc

Example:
d={65:"A", 3.14:"pi", True:1}
print(d)

Output:
 Restrictions On
Dictionary Keys

2. We can even use built-in objects like types and

functions:

Example:
d={int:1, float:2, bool:3}
print(d)
print(d[float])

Output:
 Restrictions On
Dictionary Keys

3. Duplicate keys are not allowed. If we assign a value to an

already existing dictionary key, it does not add the key a
second time, but replaces the existing value:

Example:
d={"MP":"Indore","UP":"Lucknow","RAJ":"Jaipur"}
print(d)
d["MP"]="Bhopal"
print(d)
Output:
 Restrictions On
Dictionary Keys

4. If we specify a key a second time during the initial

creation of a dictionary, the second occurrence will
override the first:
Example:
d={"MP":"Indore","UP":"Lucknow","RAJ":"Jaipur","MP":"Bhopal"}
print(d)

Output:
 Restrictions On
Dictionary Keys

5. A dictionary key must be of a type that is immutable.

Like integer, float, string and Boolean—can serve as
dictionary keys. Even a tuple can also be a dictionary key,
because tuples are immutable:

Example:
d = {(1, 1): 'a', (1, 2): 'b', (2, 1): 'c', (2, 2): 'd'}
print(d)
print(d[(1,2)])
Output:
 Restrictions On
Dictionary Keys

6. However, neither a list nor another dictionary can serve as

a dictionary key, because lists and dictionaries are
mutable:

Example:
d = {[1, 1]: 'a', [1, 2]: 'b', [2, 1]: 'c', [2, 2]: 'd'}
print(d)

Output:
 Restrictions On
Dictionary Values

 There are no restrictions on dictionary values.

 A dictionary value can be any type of object Python

supports, including mutable types like lists and
dictionaries, and user-defined objects

 There is also no restriction against a particular value

appearing in a dictionary multiple times:
 Exercise

 Write a complete COUNTRY MANAGEMENT APP. Your

code should store COUNTRY CODE and COUNTRY NAME
as key-value pair in a dictionary and allow perform following
operations on the dictionary :
 View
 Add
 Delete

To start the program initialize your dictionary with

the following set of key-value pairs:

IN→India
US→America
AU→Australia
CA→Canada
Sample Output
 Solution

def show_menu():
print("SELECT AN OPTION:")
print("view: View country names")
print("add: Add a country")
print("del: Delete a country")
print("exit- Exit the program")
print()

def show_codes(countries):
codes=list(countries.keys())
codes.sort()
str="Country Codes:"
for x in codes:
str+=x+" "
print(str)
 Solution

def view_country(countries):
show_codes(countries)
code=input("Enter country code:")
cname=countries.get(code.upper())
if cname==None:
print("There is no country for country code",code)
else:
print("Country is",cname)
def add_country(countries):
code=input("Enter country code:")
code=code.upper()
cname=countries.get(code)
if cname==None:
cname=input("Enter country name:")
cname=cname.title()
countries[code]=cname
print(cname, "added to the list")
else:
print(code ,"is already used by",cname)
 Solution

def del_country(countries):
code=input("Enter country code:")
cname=countries.pop(code.upper(),"NF")
if cname=="NF":
print("Sorry! You entered a wrong country code")
else:
print(cname ,"was deleted successfully! from the list")

countries={"IN":"India","US":"America","AU":"Australia","CA":"Canada"}
while True:
show_menu()
choice=input("Your choice:")
if choice=="view":
view_country(countries)
elif choice=="add":
add_country(countries)
elif choice=="del":
del_country(countries)
elif choice=="exit":
break;
else:
print("Wrong choice ! Try again!")
 Exercise

 Modify the previous code , so that now you are able to store
3 values for each key . These are COUNTRY NAME ,
CAPITAL CITY and POPULATION. Provide same options
to the user and start with the following data

IN→India , Delhi,1320000000
US→America,Washington,320000000
AU→Australia,Canberra,24000000
CA→Canada,Ottawa,940000
Sample Output
 PYTHON
LECTURE 39
 Today’s Agenda

• Introduction To Object Oriented

Programming-I

• Problems With Procedure Oriented Programming

• What Is Object Oriented Programming ?
• What Is A Class ?
• What Is An Object ?
• Syntax Of Creating A Class In Python
• Syntax Of Creating Object
• Types Of Data Members A Class Can Have
• The Method __init__()
• The Argument self
• Passing Parameters To __init__()
 Question ???

 Can you tell , what kind of programming paradigm

we have followed this point in Python ?

 The answer is : POP (Procedure Oriented

Programming)

 In all the programs we wrote till now, we have designed our program
around functions i.e. blocks of statements which manipulate
data.

 This is called the procedure-oriented programming.

 Advantages

 Advantages Of Procedure Oriented Programming

 It’s easy to implement

 The ability to re-use the same code at different places in the

program without copying it.

 An easier way to keep track of program flow for small

codes

 Needs only less memory.

 Disadvantages

 Disadvantages Of Procedure Oriented

Programming

 Very difficult to relate with real world objects.

 Data is exposed to whole program, so no security for

data.

 Difficult to create new data types

 Importance is given to the operation on data rather than

the data.
 So , What Is The Solution ?

 Solution to all the previous 4 problems is Object

Oriented Programming

 Many people consider OOP to be a modern programming

paradigm, but the roots go back to 1960s.

 The first programming language to use objects was

Simula 67
 What Is OOP?

 OOP is a programming paradigm (way of

developing programs)

 OOP allows us to combine the data and functionality

and wrap it inside something which is called an object
 What Is An Object?

• In programming any real world entity which has

specific attributes or features can be represented as an
Object.

• Along with attributes each object can take some actions

also which are called it’s “behaviors”

• In programming world, these attributes are called data

members and behaviours/actions are called methods
 Are We Objects ?

• Yes , we humans are objects because:

• We have attributes as name, height, age etc.

• We also can show behaviors like walking, talking,

running, eating etc
 Classes

• Now to create/represent objects we first have to write all

their attributes and behaviours under a single group .

• This group is called a class

 Classes

• A class is used to specify the basic structure of an object

and it combines attributes and methods to be used by an
object

• Thus we can say that a class represents the data type and
object represents a kind of variable of that data type

• For Example:- Each person collectively come under a class

called Human Being. So we belong to the class Human Being.
Objects and Classes
Objects and Classes
Objects and Classes
Objects and Classes
Objects and Classes
 Creating A Class

 Defining a class is simple in Python.

 We start with the class keyword to indicate that we are

creating a class, then we add the name of the class followed
by a colon

 We can then add class members , which are methods

and attributes
 Syntax Of Creating A Class

Syntax:
class <class_name>:
# class members

Example:
class Emp:
pass
 Creating Objects

 In order to use a class we have to create it’s object which is

also called instantiating a class because objects are also
called instance of the class

 So, to create an instance of a class, we use the class

name, followed by parentheses and assign it to a
variable.
 Syntax Of Creating Object

Syntax:
var_name=class_name( )

Example:
e=Emp()
 Full Code

class Emp:
pass
1.The first line shows the class
name which is Emp.

e=Emp() 2. The second line shows the

address of the object to which the
print(type(e)) reference e is pointing

print(e) 3. The name __main__ is the

name of the module which Python
automatically allots to our file

Output:
 Adding
Data Members/Attributes

 Once we have defined the class , our next step is to provide it

data members/variables which can be used to hold values related
to objects.

 In Python , a class can have 3 types of variables:

 Instance Variables: Created per instance basis

 Local Variables: Created locally inside a method and destroyed when

the method execution is over

 Class Variables: Created inside a class and shared by every object of

that class. Sometimes also called as static variables
 What Is An Instance Variable?

 Object variables or Instance Variables are created by

Python for each individual object of the class.

 In this case, each object has its own copy of the

instance variable and they are not shared or related in
any way to the field by the same name in a different object
 Creating Instance Variables

 Creation of instance variables in Python is entirely

different than C++ or Java

 In these languages , we declare the data members inside

the class and when we instantiate the class , these
members are allocated space .
 Creating Instance Variables
In C++

 For example in C++ ,we would write :

class Emp Now to use this Emp class we would say:

{
Emp e;
int age;
char name[20]; Doing this will create an object in memory by
double salary; the name e and will contain three
…….. instance members called as
age , name and salary . Also this line
……..
will automatically call a special method
} These are called constructor for
called initializing the object
instance
variables in
C++
 Creating Instance Variables
In Java

 In Java ,we would write :

class Emp Now to use this Emp class we would say:

{
Emp e=new Emp( )
int age;
String name; Doing this will create an object in heap with
double salary; the data members as age , name and salary
…….. and the reference e will be pointing to that
object. Here also the special method
……..
called constructor will be called
} These are automatically for initializing the object
called
instance
variables in
Java
 Creating Instance Variables
In Python

 But in Python we use a very special method called __init__() ,

to create as well as initialize an object’s initial attributes by
giving them their default value.

 Python calls this method automatically , as soon as the object

of the class gets created.

 Since it is called automatically , we can say it is like a

constructor in C++ or Java.
 Full Code

class Emp:
def __init__(self):
print("Object created. . .")

As you can observe ,

e=Emp() Python has
automatically called the
special method
Output:
__init__() as soon as
we have created the
object of Emp class
 Another Example

class Emp:
def __init__(self):
print("Object created. . .")

e=Emp()
f=Emp()
g=Emp()

Output:
 The argument self ?

 You must have noticed that the code is using an argument

called self in the argument list of __init__()

 So , now 2 questions arise , which are :

 What is self ?

 Why it is required ?
 What Is self ?

 In Python , whenever we create an object , Python calls

the method __init()__

 But while calling this method , Python also passes the

address of the object , for which it is calling __init__()
, as the first argument.

 Thus , when we define the __init__() method we must

provide it atleast one formal argument which will
receive the object’s address .

 This argument is named as self

 What If We Don’t Create self ?

class Emp:
def __init__():
print("Object created. . .")
As you can observe ,
Python has generated an
e=Emp() exception , since it has
passed the object address
as argument while calling
the method __init__() but
we have not declared any
argument to receive it
Output:
 Can We Give Some Other Name
To self ?

class Emp:
def __init__(myself):
print("Object created. . .")

As you can observe ,

e=Emp() Python has allowed us to
use the name myself
instead of self , but the
convention is to always use
the word self

Output:
 More About self

 Python always passes address of the object to every

instance method of our class whenever we call it, not
only to the method __init__()

 So, every instance method which we define in our class

has to compulsorily have atleast one argument of type self
 More About self

 The argument self always points to the address of the

current object

 We can think it to be like this reference or this pointer

of Java or C++ languages
 Is self A Keyword ?

 No , not at all

 Many programmers wrongly think self to be a keyword

but it is not so.

 It is just a name and can be changed to anything else but

the convention is to always use the name self

 Another Important Point!

 The argument self is local to the method body , so we
cannot use it outside the method
 Guess The Output

class Emp:
def __init__(self):
print("Object Created...")

e=Emp()
print(self)

Output:
 The Most Important Role
Of self

 We can also use self to dynamically add instance members

to the current object.

 To do this ,we simply have to use self followed by dot operator

followed by name of the variable along with it’s initial value

 Syntax:
class <class_name>:
def __init__(self):
self.<var_name>=value
.
.
 Example

The variables
class Emp: self.age,self.name
and self.salary are
def __init__(self): called instance
variables
self.age=25
self.name="Rahul" Remember , we cannot
use self outside the class
self.salary=30000.0 . So outside the class we
will have to use the
reference variable e

e=Emp()
print("Age:",e.age,"Name:",e.name,"Salary:",e.salary)
Another very important
point to understand if you
Output: are from C++ background is
that in Python by default
everything in a class is
public . So we can direclty
access it outside the class
 A Very Important Point!

 The instance variables called age , name and salary

are accessed in 2 ways in Python:

 Inside the methods of the class , they are always accessed using self so
that Python will refer them for current object

 Outside the class , we cannot access them using self because self is
only available within the class.

 So outside the class we have to access them using the object reference
we have created
 Guess The Output ?

class Emp:
def __init__(self):
Unlike C++ or Java ,
self.age=25 in Python we can
self.name="Rahul" create instance
variables outside the
class by directly using
e=Emp() the object reference
e.salary=30000.0
print("Age:",e.age,"Name:",e.name,"Salary:",e.salary)

Output:
 A Problem With The Code

 Although the code works fine , but it has one problem .

 The problem is that for every object of Emp class ,

Python will call __init__() method and thus every object
will be initialized with the same values

 To overcome this problem we can make the method

__init__() parameterized
 Passing Parameters
To __init__()

 Since __init__() is also a method so just like other methods we

can pass arguments to it .

 But we need to remember 2 things for this:

 Since __init__() is called by Python at the time of object creation

so we will have to pass these arguments at the time of creation of
the object

 We will have to define parameters also while defining __init__()

to receive these arguments

 Finally using these parameters we can initialize instance

members to different values for different objects
 Passing Parameters
To __init__()

class Emp:
def __init__(self,age,name,salary):
self.age=age
The variables age,
self.name=name
name an salary are
self.salary=salary called local variables

e=Emp(25,"Rahul",30000.0)
print("Age:",e.age,"Name:",e.name,"Salary:",e.salary)
f=Emp(31,"Varun",45000.0)
print("Age:",f.age,"Name:",f.name,"Salary:",f.salary)
Output:
 An Important Point

 The argument self , should always be the first argument as

Python passes the address of the current object as the first
argument

 The variables age , name and salary used in the argument list
of __init__() are called parameters or local variables.

 They will only survive until the method is under execution

and after that they will be destroyed by Python
 An Important Point

 Any variable declared inside the body of any method

inside the class without using self will also be called as
local variable

 It is a common convention to give parameters the

same name as instance members , but it is not at all
compulsory.
 Passing Parameters
To __init__()

class Emp:
def __init__(self,x,y,z):
self.age=x
self.name=y
self.salary=z

e=Emp(25,"Rahul",30000.0)
print("Age:",e.age,"Name:",e.name,"Salary:",e.salary)
f=Emp(31,"Varun",45000.0)
print("Age:",f.age,"Name:",f.name,"Salary:",f.salary)
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Emp:
e1=Emp("amit")
def __init__(self,name):
e2=Emp("sumit",23)
self.name=name
e3=Emp("deepak",34,50000.)
def __init__(self,name,age): print(e1.name)
self.name=name print(e2.name,e2.age)
self.age=age print(e3.name,e3.age,e3.sal)
def __init__(self,name,age,sal):
self.name=name
self.age=age
self.sal=sal

Output:
 Why Didn’t The Code Run ?

 Recall , that we have already discussed that PYTHON

DOES NOT SUPPORT METHOD/FUNCTION
OVERLOADING .

 So if two methods have same name then the second

copy of the method will overwrite the first copy.

 So , in our case Python remembers only one __init__()

method , which is defined last and since it is taking 3
arguments (excluding self) so our call:
e1=Emp(“amit”)
generated the exception
 Question ?

 Can we do something so that the code runs with

different number of arguments passed to Emp
objects ?

 Yes !

 The solution is to use default arguments

 Solution

class Emp:
def __init__(self,name,age=0,sal=0.0):
self.name=name
self.age=age
self.sal=sal

e1=Emp("amit")
e2=Emp("sumit",23)
e3=Emp("deepak",34,50000.)
print(e1.name)
print(e2.name,e2.age)
print(e3.name,e3.age,e3.sal)
Output:
 PYTHON
LECTURE 40
 Today’s Agenda

• Introduction To Object Oriented

Programming-II

• Types Of Methods
• Adding Instance Methods
• Obtaining Details Of Instance Variables
• Different Ways To Create Instance Variables
• Deleting Instance Variables
 Adding
Methods In Class

 Once we have defined the class , our next step is to provide

methods in it

 In Python , a class can have 3 types of methods:

 Instance Methods: Called using object

 Class Methods: Called using class name

 Static Methods: Called using class name

 Adding Instance Methods

 Instance methods are the most common type of methods

in Python classes.

 These are called instance methods because they can

access instance members of the object.
 Adding Instance Methods

 These methods always take atleast one

parameter, which is normally called self, which points to
the current object for which the method is called.

 Through the self parameter, instance methods can

access data members and other methods on the same
object.

 This gives them a lot of power when it comes to modifying

an object’s state.
 Example

class Emp:
def __init__(self,age,name,salary):
self.age=age
self.name=name
self.salary=salary
def show(self):
print("Age:",self.age,"Name:",self.name,"Salary:",self.salary)

e=Emp(25,"Rahul",30000.0)
f=Emp(31,"Varun",45000.0)
e.show()
f.show()
Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to create a class called Circle , having an instance

member called radius. Provide following instance methods in your
class:
 __init___() : This method should initialize radius with the parameter
passed
 cal_area(): This method should calculate and print the radius of the Circle
 cal_circumference(): This method should calculate and print the
circumference of the Circle
 Finally , in the main script , create a Circle object , initialize radius
with user input and calculate and display it’s area and
circumference
Output:
 Solution

import math
class Circle:
def __init__(self,radius):
self.radius=radius
def cal_area(self):
area=math.pi*math.pow(self.radius,2)
print("Area of circle is",area)
def cal_circumference(self):
circumf=math.tau * self.radius
print("Circumference of circle is",circumf)

radius=int(input("Enter radius:"))
cobj=Circle(radius)
cobj.cal_area()
cobj.cal_circumference()
 Guess The Output ?

class Emp:

def __init__(self): Why did the code give exception?

self.name=“Amit”
self.age=24 The syntax we are using for accessing
self.sal=50000.0 name , age and sal is only applicable
def show(self): to local variables and not for instance
print(age,name,sal) members.
And since there are no local
variables by the name of name , age
e1=Emp()
and sal , so the code is giving exception
e1.show()

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Emp:

def __init__(self):
self.name=“Amit”
self.age=24
self.sal=50000.0
def show(self):
print(self.age,self.name,self.sal)

e1=Emp()
e1.show()
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Emp:

def __init__(self,name,age,sal): Why did the code give exception?

self.name=name
self.age=age The variables name, age and sal
self.sal=sal are local variables declared inside
def show(self): the method __init__() and hence
print(age,name,sal) are not available to the method
show() , so the code gave
e1=Emp("amit",34,50000.0) NameError exception
e1.show()

Output:
 Local Var V/s Instance Var

Local Variables Instance Variables

They are declared inside method body but They are declared inside method body
without using self always using self

They are only accessible to the method They are always available to every instance
in which they have been declared method

They live only till the execution of the They are a part of object , so they live
method is not over. Once it is over they are until the object gets destroyed
destroyed

They can be declared in any method They also can be declared and defined in any
defined inside the class instance method but normally it is advised to
declare / create them inside the method
__init__() and then use them in other
instance methods
 Methods V/s Constructor

Methods Constructor

They can be declared with any name we It always has the name __init__()
like

They have to be explicitly called by us , It is always called automatically by PVM

otherwise they don’t run

They can be called as many number of It is called just once for one object
times as we want for a single object

They are used for performing different tasks It is exclusively used for creation and
related to the object , also called business initialization of instance members for
logic an object
 Obtaining Details Of
Instance Variables

 Every object in Python has an attribute denoted

by __dict__.

 This attribute is automatically added by Python and

it contains all the attributes defined for the object
itself.

 It maps the attribute name to its value.

 Guess The Output ?

class Emp:

def __init__(self):
self.name="Amit"
self.age=24
self.sal=50000.0

e1=Emp()
print(e1.__dict__)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Emp:

def __init__(self):
self.name="Amit"
self.age=24
sal=50000.0

e1=Emp()
print(e1.__dict__)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Emp:

def __init__(self):
self.name="Amit"
self.age=24
def set_sal(self):
self.sal=50000.0

e1=Emp()
print(e1.__dict__)
e1.set_sal()
print(e1.__dict__)
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Emp:

def __init__(self):
self.name="Amit"
self.age=24
def set_sal(self):
self.sal=50000.0
comm=2000.0
e1=Emp()
print(e1.__dict__)
e1.set_sal()
print(e1.__dict__)
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Emp:
Since __dict__ is a
def __init__(self): dictionary , we can
self.name="Amit" manipulate it and
self.age=24 add/del instance
self.sal=50000.0 members from it
def show(self):
print(self.name,self.age,self.sal,self.department)
e1=Emp()
print(e1.__dict__)
e1.__dict__['department']='IT'
print(e1.__dict__)
e1.show()
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Emp:
def __init__(self):
self.name="Amit"
self.age=24
self.sal=50000.0
def show(self):
print(self.name,self.age,self.sal,self.department)
e1=Emp()
print(e1.__dict__)
e1.__dict__['department']='IT'
print(e1.__dict__)
e1.show()
del e1.__dict__['age']
e1.show()
Output:
 Challenge !

class Emp: Can you rewrite the code for

def __init__(self,name,age,sal): __init__() in just one line ?
self.name=name
Yes , it can be done by adding
self.age=age
2 things :
self.sal=sal 1. kwargs
def show(self): 2. update() method of
print(self.name,self.age,self.sal) __dict__

e1=Emp("Amit",24,50000.0)
e1.show()

Output:
 Solution

class Emp:
def __init__(self,**kwargs):
self.__dict__.update(kwargs)
def show(self):
print(self.name,self.age,self.sal)

e1=Emp(name="Amit",age=24,sal=50000.0)
e1.show()

Output:
 How Many Ways Are There To
Create Instance Variables ?

 Till now we can say there are 4 ways in Python to create

instance variables:

 Inside the constructor/__init__() method using self

 Inside any instance method of the class using self

 Outside the class using it’s object reference

 Using the instance attribute __dict__

 Guess The Output ?

class Emp:
e1=Emp("Amit",24,30000.0)
def __init__(self,name,age,sal):
e2=Emp("Sumit",34,45000.0)
self.name=name
e1.setDept("Finance")
self.age=age e1.setProject("Banking Info System")
self.sal=sal e1.setBonus(20000.0)
def setDept(self,department): e2.setDept("Production")
self.department=department print(e1.__dict__)
def setProject(self,project): print() Since Python is
self.project=project print(e2.__dict__)
dynamically typed
def setBonus(self,bonus): language so object’s of
self.bonus=bonus same class can have
different number of
Output: instance variables
 Deleting Instance Variables

 We can delete/remove instance variables in 2 ways:

 Using del self .<var_name> from the body of any instance

method within the class

 Using del <obj_ref>.<var_name> from outside the class

 Guess The Output ?

class Boy:
def __init__(self,name,girlfriend):
self.name=name
self.girlfriend=girlfriend
def breakup(self):
del self.girlfriend
b1=Boy("Deepak","Jyoti")
print(b1.__dict__)
b1.breakup()
print(b1.girlfriend)
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Engineer:
def __init__(self,girlfriend,job):
self.girlfriend=girlfriend
self.job=job
def fired(self):
del self.job
e1=Engineer("Rani","Software Engineer")
print(e1.__dict__)
e1.fired()
del e1.girlfriend
print(e1.__dict__)
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Emp:
def __init__(self,name,age,sal):
self.name=name
self.age=age
self.sal=sal

e1=Emp("Amit",24,50000.0)
print(e1.__dict__)
del e1
print(e1.__dict__)
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

Since the object

class Emp:
pointed by self is also
def __init__(self,name,age,sal): pointed by e1 , so
self.name=name Python didn’t remove
self.age=age the object , rather it
self.sal=sal only removes the
reference self
def remove(self):
del self
e1=Emp("Amit",24,50000.0)
print(e1.__dict__)
e1.remove()
print(e1.__dict__)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Emp: Since instance variables

def __init__(self,name,age,sal): have a separate copy
self.name=name created for every object
self.age=age , so deleting an instance
self.sal=sal variable from one object
e1=Emp("Amit",24,50000.0) will not effect the other
e2=Emp("Sumit",25,45000.0) object’s same instance
print(e1.__dict__) variable
print(e2.__dict__)
del e1.sal
del e2.age
print()
print(e1.__dict__)
print(e2.__dict__)
Output:
 PYTHON
LECTURE 41
 Today’s Agenda

• Introduction To Object Oriented

Programming-III

• Adding Class Variables

• Different Ways To Create A Class Variable
• Different Ways To Access A Class Variable
• Obtaining Details Of Class Variables
• Deleting Class Variables
 Class Variables

 Class variables are those variables which are defined

within the class body outside any method

 They are also called as static variables , although there is

no static keyword used with them
 Class Variables

 The are shared by all instances of the class and have

the same value for each instance of the class.

 They have a single copy maintained at the class level

 What Is Class Level ?

 The term class level means inside the class object.

 In Python , for every class one special object is

created called as class object

 Don’t think it is the same object which we create.

No it is not that!

 Rather , for every class , Python itself creates an object

called as class object and inside this object all the class /
static variables live
 When Should
We Use Class Variable ?

 Whenever we don’t want to create a separate copy of the

variable for each object , then we can declare it as a
class variable.

 For example :

 The variable pi in a class called Circle can be declared as a class level

variable since all Circle objects will have the same value for pi

 Another example could be a variable called max_marks in a class

called Student . It should also be declared at the class level because
each Student will have same max_marks
 Using Class Variable

 We can use a class variable at 6 places in Python:

 Inside the class body but outside any method

 Inside the constructor using the name of the class

 Inside instance method using name of the class

 Inside classmethod using name of the class or using the special

reference cls

 Inside staticmethod using the name of the class

 From outside the class using name of the class

 Declaring Inside Class Body

 To declare a class variable inside class body but outside any

method body , we simply declare it below the class header

 Syntax:
class <class_name>:
<var_name>=<value>
def __init__(self):
This is called a
// object specific code class variable

 To access the class level variables we use class name before

them with dot operator
 How To Access/Modify
Class Variables?

 We must clearly understand the difference between

accessing and modifying .

 Accessing means we are just reading the value of the

variable

 Modifying means we are changing it’s value

 How To Access
Class Variables?

 The class variables can be accessed in 4 ways:

 Using name of the class anywhere in the program

 Using self inside any instance method

 Using object reference outside the class

 Using special reference cls inside classmethod

 How To Modify
Class Variables?

 The class variables can be modified in 3 ways:

 Using name of the class anywhere inside the methods of the class

 Using special reference cls inside classmethod

 Using name of the class outside the class body

 Special Note:We must never modify a class variable

using self or object reference , because it will not
modify the class variable , rather will create a new
instance variable by the same name
 Example

class CompStudent:
The variable
stream = 'cse' stream is class
def __init__(self,name,roll): variable
self.name = name
self.roll = roll
Everytime we will access
obj1 = CompStudent('Atul',1) the class variable stream
obj2 = CompStudent('Chetan', 2) from any object , the
print(obj1.name) value will remain same
print(obj1.roll)
print(obj1.stream)
print(obj2.name)
print(obj2.roll) Output:
print(obj2.stream)
print(CompStudent.stream)
 Exercise

 Write a program to create a class called Emp , having 3 instance members

called name , age and sal . Also declare a class variable called
raise_amount to store the increment percentage of sal and set it to 7.5 .
 Now provide following methods in your class
 __init___() : This method should initialize instance members with the parameter
passed
 increase_sal(): This method should calculate the increment in sal and add it to the
instance member sal
 display(): This method should display name , age and sal of the employee
 Finally , in the main script , create 2 Emp objects , initialize them and
increase their salary . Finally display the data
Output:
 Solution

class Emp:
raise_amount=7.5
def __init__(self,name,age,sal):
self.name=name
self.age=age
self.sal=sal
def increase_sal(self):
self.sal=self.sal+(self.sal*Emp.raise_amount/100)
def display(self):
print(self.name,self.age,self.sal)

e1=Emp("Amit",24,50000.0)
e2=Emp("Sumit",26,45000.0)
print("Before incrementing :")
print("_____________________");
e1.display()
e2.display()
e1.increase_sal()
e2.increase_sal()
print()
print("After incrementing by",Emp.raise_amount,"percent:")
print("__________________________________");
e1.display()
e2.display()
 Declaring Class Variable
Inside Constructor

 We can declare a class variable inside the constructor also by

prefixing the variable name with the name of the class and
dot operator

 Syntax: This is called a

class <class_name>: class variable

def __init__(self):
<class name>.<var_name>=<value>
self.<var_name>=<value>
.
.
.
 Example

class CompStudent:
We have shifted the
var decl from class
def __init__(self,name,roll): body to constructor
CompStudent.stream='cse' body , but still it will
self.name = name be treated as class
self.roll = roll variable because we
have prefixed it with
classnname
obj1 = CompStudent('Atul',1)
obj2 = CompStudent('Chetan', 2)
print(obj1.name)
print(obj1.roll)
print(obj1.stream)
print(obj2.name)
print(obj2.roll) Output:
print(obj2.stream)
print(CompStudent.stream)
 Declaring Class Variable
Inside Instance Method

 We can declare a class variable inside an instance method also

also by prefixing the variable name with the name of the
class and dot operator

 Syntax: This is called a

class <class_name>: class variable

def <method_name>(self):
<class name>.<var_name>=<value>
self.<var_name>=<value>
.
.
.
 Example

class Circle: We have shifted the

def __init__(self,radius): var decl from class
body to method body ,
self.radius=radius but still it will be
def cal_area(self): treated as class
Circle.pi=3.14 variable because we
have prefixed it with
self.area=Circle.pi * self.radius ** 2 classnname
c1=Circle(10)
c2=Circle(20)
c1.cal_area()
print("radius=",c1.radius,"area=",c1.area,"pi=",Circle.pi)
c2.cal_area()
print("radius=",c2.radius,"area=",c2.area,"pi=",Circle.pi)
Output:
 Obtaining Details Of
Class Variables

 As we know , class variables are owned by a class itself

(i.e., by its definition), so to store their details a class also
uses a dictionary called __dict__

 Thus we can see that Python has 2 dictionaries called

__dict__ .

 One is <class_name>.__dict__ and the other is

<object_ref>.__dict__
 Guess The Output ?

class Emp:
raise_per=7.5
comp_name="Google"
def __init__(self):
self.name="Amit"
self.age=24
self.sal=50000.0
e1=Emp()
print(e1.__dict__)
print()
print(Emp.__dict__)
Output:
 How many class variables
will be created by this code?

class Sample: Why the code is showing only 2 class

i=10 variables even though we have 4 ?
def __init__(self):
This is because the class variable k will
Sample.j=20
only be created when f1() gets called .
def f1(self): Similarly the variable j will be created
Sample.k=30 when we will create any object of the
Sample.m=40 class . But since we didn’t create any
object nor we have called the method
print(Sample.__dict__)
f1( ) so only 2 class variables are there
called i and m
Output:
 How many class variables
will be created by this code?

class Sample:
i=10
def __init__(self):
Sample.j=20
def f1(self): Three class variables
Sample.k=30 will be created by the
Sample.m=40 code called i,j and m
s1=Sample()
print(Sample.__dict__)
Output:
 How many class variables
will be created by this code?

class Sample: Still only three class variables

i=10 will be created by the code
def __init__(self): called i,j and m because class
variables are not created per
Sample.j=20 instance basis rather there is
def f1(self): only 1 copy shared by all the
Sample.k=30 objects
Sample.m=40
s1=Sample()
S2=Sample()
print(Sample.__dict__)
Output:
 How many class variables
will be created by this code?

class Sample:
i=10
def __init__(self):
Sample.j=20
def f1(self):
Sample.k=30
Sample.m=40
s1=Sample()
s2=Sample()
s1.f1()
s2.f1()
print(Sample.__dict__)
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Sample:
i=10
def __init__(self):
print("Constructor called. . .")
print(Sample.i)
print(self.i)
def f1(self):
print("f1 called. . .")
print(Sample.i)
print(self.i)
s1=Sample()
s1.f1()
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Sample:
s1=Sample()
i=10
s1.f1()
def __init__(self):
print(Sample.i)
print("Constructor called. . .") print(s1.i)
print(Sample.i)
print(self.i)
def f1(self):
print("f1 called. . .")
print(Sample.i)
print(self.i)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

As mentioned previously , if
class Sample: we use self or object reference
i=10 to modify a class variable ,
then Python does not modify
def __init__(self): the class variable . Rather it
self.i=20 creates a new instance
variable inside the object’s
memory area by the same
name.
s1=Sample() So in our case 2 variables by
print(Sample.i) the name i are created . One as
class variable and other as
instance variable

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Sample:
i=10
def __init__(self):
self.i=20

s1=Sample()
print(Sample.i)
print(s1.i)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Sample:
i=10
def __init__(self):
Sample.i=20

s1=Sample()
print(Sample.i)
print(s1.i)
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Sample:
i=10
def __init__(self):
Sample.i=20

s1=Sample()
s1.i=30
print(Sample.i)
print(s1.i)
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Sample:
i=10
def __init__(self):
Sample.i=20

s1=Sample()
Sample.i=30
print(Sample.i)
print(s1.i)
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Sample:
i=10
def __init__(self):
self.j=20
s1=Sample()
s2=Sample()
s1.i=100
s1.j=200
print(s1.i,s1.j)
print(s2.i,s2.j)
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Sample:
i=10
def f1(self):
self.j=20
s1=Sample()
s2=Sample()
s1.i=100
s1.j=200
print(s1.i,s1.j)
print(s2.i,s2.j)
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Sample:
i=10
def __init__(self):
self.j=20
s1=Sample()
s2=Sample()
Sample.i=100
s1.j=200
print(s1.i,s1.j)
print(s2.i,s2.j)
Output:
 Deleting Class Variables

 We can delete/remove instance variables in 2 ways

 Using del classname .<var_name> from anywhere in the

program

 Using del cls.<var_name> from classmethod

 Special Note: We cannot delete a class variable using

object reference or self , otherwise Python will throw
AttributeError exception
 Guess The Output ?

class Sample:
i=10
def __init__(self):
del Sample.i

print(Sample.__dict__)
s1=Sample()
print()
print(Sample.__dict__)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Sample:
i=10
def __init__(self):
del self.i

print(Sample.__dict__)
s1=Sample()
print()
print(Sample.__dict__)

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Sample:
i=10
def __init__(self):
del Sample.i

print(Sample.__dict__)
s1=Sample()
del Sample.i
print()
print(Sample.__dict__)

Output:
 PYTHON
LECTURE 42
 Today’s Agenda

• Introduction To Object Oriented

Programming-IV

• Class Methods
• Creating Class Methods
• Accessing Class Methods
• Static Methods
• Accessing Static Methods
• Difference Between Instance Method , Class Method and Static
Methods
 Class Methods

 Just like we can have class variables , similarly Python

also allows us to create class methods.

 These are those methods which work on the class as a

whole , instead of working on it’s object.

 For , example in our Emp class if we want to initialize the

class variable raise_per inside a method , then the best
way would be to create a class method for this purpose
 Creating A Class Metod

 To create a class method we write the special word

@classmethod on top of method definition

 Syntax: This is called

decorator
class <class_name>:
@classmethod
def <method_name>(cls):
// class specific code
Notice that a class method
gets a special object
reference passed as
argument by Python
called as class refercnce
 Important Points About
ClassMethods

 To define a class method it is compulsory to use the

decorator @classmethod

 ClassMethods can only access class level data and not

instance specific data
 Important Points About
ClassMethods

 Just like Python passed self as argument to instance

methods , it automatically passes cls as argument to
classmethods

 The argument cls is always passed as the first argument

and represents the class object.
 Important Points About
ClassMethods

 Recall , that for every class Python creates a special object

called class object , so the reference cls points to this
object.

 The name cls is just a convention , although we can give

any name to it.
 Important Points About
ClassMethods

 To call a classmethod we simply prefix it with

classname followed by dot operator.

 Although we can use object reference also to call a

classmethod but it is highly recommended not to
do so , since classmethods do not work upon
individual instances of the class
 Exercise

 Write a program to create a class called Emp , having an instance members

called name , age and sal . Also declare a class variable called
raise_amount to store the increment percentage of sal and set it the
value given by the user
 Now provide following methods in your class
 __init___() : This method should initialize instance members with the parameter
passed
 increase_sal(): This method should calculate the increment in sal and add ot to the
instance member sal
 display(): This method should display name , age and sal of the employee
 Finally , in the main script , create 2 Emp objects , initialize them and
increase their salary . Finally display the data
Output:
 Solution

class Emp:
raise_amount=0
@classmethod
def set_raise_amount(cls):
cls.raise_amount=float(input("Enter raise percentage:"))
def __init__(self,name,age,sal):
self.name=name
self.age=age
self.sal=sal
def increase_sal(self):
self.sal=self.sal+(self.sal*Emp.raise_amount/100) This can can also
def display(self): be written as
print(self.name,self.age,self.sal)
Emp.set_raise_amount()
Emp.raise_amount
e1=Emp("Amit",24,50000.0)
e2=Emp("Sumit",26,45000.0)
print("Before incrementing :")
print("_____________________");
e1.display()
e2.display()
e1.increase_sal()
e2.increase_sal()
print()
print("After incrementing by",Emp.raise_amount,"percent:")
print("__________________________________");
e1.display()
e2.display()
 Static Methods

 The third type of method a Python class can contain are called
static methods

 Static methods, much like class methods, are methods that

are bound to a class rather than it’s object.

 Just like class methods , they also do not require any object to
be called and can be called using name of the class
 Static Methods

 The difference between a static method and a class

method is:
 Static method knows nothing about the class and just deals
with the parameters.

 Class method works with the class since it’s parameter is

always the class itself.

 This means that a static method doesn’t even get cls

reference unlike a class method

 It knows nothing about the class and is only interested to

work upon it’s parameters
 Creating A Static Method

 To create a static method we write the decorator

@staticmethod on top of method definition

Notice that a
 Syntax: static method
class <class_name>: doesn’t get any
implicit
@staticmethod argument by
Python
def <method_name>(<arg_list> )
// argument specific code
 Example

class MyMath:
@staticmethod
def add_nos(a,b):
c=a+b
return c
@staticmethod
def mult_nos(a,b):
c=a*b
return c

print("Sum of 10 and 20 is",MyMath.add_nos(10,20))

print("Product of 10 and 20 is",MyMath.mult_nos(10,20))
 An Important Point

 A static method can access class data using the name of the
class.

 For example , the method set_raise( ) in our Emp

example can be also be declared as static method instead
of class method No cls argument
is there so to
access the class
class Emp: data
raise_amount=0 raise_amount we
@staticmethod have to use class
name Emp
def set_raise_amount():
Emp.raise_amount=float(input("Enter raise percentage:"))
 Another Important Point

 If we don’t use the decorator @staticmethod , then 2

things can happen:

 If we call the method using object reference Python will consider it to

be instance method

 If we are calling it using classname , then Python will consider it to be

a static method
 Guess The Output ?

class Demo:
def display(): Since we have not used the
decorator @staticmethod with the
print("Inside display")
method display ( ) and we are
calling it using object reference , so
Python is considering it to be an
d=Demo()
instance method. As we know to
d.display() every instance method Python
passes an implicit argument called
self and we have to receive it in our
method ,but in display we haven’t
done so. Thus the code is throwing
Output:
TypeError
 Guess The Output ?

class Demo:
def display():
print("Inside display")

Demo.display()

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Demo:
def display(self):
print("Inside display") Don’t think Python is
considering it as an instance
method . Python is still
Demo.display() considering it a static method
because we are calling it using
class name .The Exception is
Output: occurring because the method is
parameterized and we are not
passing it any argument.
 Guess The Output ?

class Demo:
def display(self):
print("Inside display")
Now since the required
argument has been
Demo.display(“Hello”) passed , Python has
successfully executed the
Output: method as a static
method
 Guess The Output ?

class Demo:
def display(self):
Now since we are calling
print("Inside display")
it using the object
reference , Python has
D=Demo() passed the first argument
D.display( ) as address of the object
and executed the code
considering the method
Output:
as an instance method
 When To Use
Each Type Of Method ?

 It is a common questions , beginners face as to when to use

which type of method amongst instance methods , class
methods and static methods:

 The answer is:

 Instance Methods: The most common method type. Able to access

data and properties unique to each instance.

 Static Methods: Cannot access anything else in the class. Totally

self-contained code.

 Class Methods: Can access limited methods in the class. Can

modify class specific details.
 PYTHON
LECTURE 43
 Today’s Agenda

• Advance Concepts Of Object Oriented

Programming-I

• Encapsulation

• Does Python Support Encapsulation ?

• How To Declare Private Members In Python ?

• The setattr( ) And getattr( ) Functions

• The object Class And The __str__() Method

• The Destructor
 Encapsulation

 Encapsulation is the packing of data and functions

operating on that data into a single component and
restricting the access to some of the object’s
components.

 Encapsulation means that the internal representation of

an object is generally hidden from view outside of the
class body.
 Is The Following Code
Supporting Encapsulation ?

class Emp: No , the following code is

violating Encapsulation as it
def __init__(self): is allowing us to access data
members from outside the
self.age=25 class directly using object

self.name="Rahul"
self.salary=30000.0

e=Emp()
print("Age:",e.age,"Name:",e.name,"Salary:",e.salary)

Output:
 How To Achieve Encapsulation
In Python ?

 To achieve Encapsulation in Python we have to prefix

the data member name with double underscore

 Syntax:
self.__<var_name>=<value>
 Achieving Encapsulation

class Emp: Since we have created the

data member as __salary so
def __init__(self): it has become a private
self.age=25 member and cannot be
accessed outside the class
self.name="Rahul" directly
self.__salary=30000.0

e=Emp()
print("Age:",e.age)
print("Name:",e.name)
print("Salary:",e.__salary)
Output:
 Achieving Encapsulation

 Now to access such private members , we must define

instance methods in the class

 From outside the class we must call these methods

using object instead of directly accessing data members
 Achieving Encapsulation

class Emp:
def __init__(self):
self.__age=25
self.__name="Rahul"
self.__salary=30000.0
def show(self):
print("Age:",self.__age,"Name:",self.__name,"Salary:",self.__salary)

e=Emp()
e.show()

Output:
 Private Methods

 Just like we have private data members , we also can

have private methods .

 The syntax is also same.

 Simply prefix the method name with double

underscore to make it a private method
 Private Methods

class Emp:
def __init__(self):
self.__age=25
self.__name="Rahul"
self.__salary=30000.0
def __show(self):
print("Age:",self.__age,"Name:",self.__name,"Salary:",self.__salary)

e=Emp()
e.__show()

Output:
 An Important Point

 When we declare a data member with double underscore

indicating that it is private , Python actually masks it

 In other words , Python changes the name of the variable

by using the syntax _<classname>__<attributename>

 For example , __age will actually become _Emp__age

 So, What It Means To Us ?

 This means that private attributes are not actually

private and are not prevented by Python from getting
accessed from outside the class.

 So if they are accessed using the above mentioned

syntax then no Error or Exception will arise

 So , finally we can say NOTHING IN PYTHON IS

ACTUALLY PRIVATE
 Accessing Private Data

class Emp:
def __init__(self):
self.__age=25
self.__name="Rahul"
self.__salary=30000.0
def show(self):
print("Age:",self.__age,"Name:",self.__name,"Salary:",self.__salary)

e=Emp()
e.show()
print("Age:",e._Emp__age,"Name:",e._Emp__name,"Salary:",e._Emp__salary)

Output:
 The setattr() And getattr()
Functions

 The setattr() function sets the value of given attribute of

an object.

 The syntax of setattr() function is:

 setattr(object, name, value)

 The setattr() function takes three parameters:

 object - object whose attribute has to be set
 name - string which contains the name of the attribute to be set
 value - value of the attribute to be set
 The setattr() And getattr()
Functions

 The getattr() function returns the value of the named

attribute of an object.

 If not found, it returns the default value provided to the function.

 The syntax of getattr() function is:

 getattr(object, name, [default value])

 The getattr() method returns:

 value of the named attribute of the given object
 default, if no named attribute is found
 AttributeError exception, if named attribute is not found and default is
not defined
 Example

class Data:
pass
d = Data()
d.id = 10
print(d.id)
setattr(d, 'id', 20)
print(d.id)

Output:
10
20
 The __str__() Method

 In Python , whenever we try to print an object reference

by passing it’s name to the print() function , we get 2
types of outputs:

 For predefined classes like list ,tuple or str , we get the contents of
the object

 For our own class objects we get the class name and the id of the
object instance (which is the object’s memory address in CPython.)
 Why Is It So ?

 This is because whenever we pass an object reference

name to the print() function , Python internally
calls a special instance method available in our class.

 This method is called __str__() .

 From where this
method came ?

 From Python 3.0 onwards , every class which we create

always automatically inherits from the class object

 Or , we can say that Python implicitly inherits our class

from the class object.

 The class object defines some special methods which every

class inherits .

 Amongst these special methods some very important are

__init__(), __str__(),__new__() etc
 Can we see all the members
of object class ?

 Yes , it is very simple!

 Just create an instance of object class and call the function

dir( ) .

 Recall that we used dir( ) to print names of all the

members of a module .

 Similarly we also can use dir( ) to print names of all the

members of any class by passing it the instance of the
class as argument
 Example

obj=object()
print(type(obj))
print(dir(obj))

Output:
 The __str__() Method

 Now , if we do not redefine (override) this method in our

class , then Python calls it’s default implementation
given by object class which is designed in such a way that
it returns the class name followed by object’s memory
address

 However all built in classes like list , str , tuple , int ,

float , bool etc have overridden this method in such a
way that it returns the content of the object.
 Overriding __str__()

 So if we also want the same behaviour for our object then

we also can override this method in our class in such a
way that it returns the content of the object.

 The only point we have to remember while overriding this

method is that it should return a string value
 Overriding __str__()

class Emp:
def __init__(self,age,name,salary):
self.age=age
self.name=name
self.salary=salary
def __str__(self):
return f"Age:{self.age},Name:{self.name},Salary:{self.salary}"

e=Emp(25,"Rahul",30000.0)
print(e)

Output:
 Destructor

 Just like a constructor is used to initialize an object,

a destructor is used to destroy the object and perform the
final clean up.

 But a question arises that if we already have garbage

collector in Python to clean up the memory , then why
we need a destructor ?
 Destructor

 Although in python we do have garbage collector to

clean up the memory, but it’s not just memory which
has to be freed when an object is dereferenced or destroyed.

 There can be a lot of other resources as well, like

closing open files, closing database connections etc.

 Hence when we might require a destructor in our class for

this purpose
 Destructor In Python

 Just like we have __init__() which can be considered like

a constructor as it initializes the object , similarly in
Python we have another magic method called __del__().

 This method is automatically called by Python whenever

an object reference goes out of scope and the object is
destroyed.
 Guess The Output ?

class Test: Since at the end of the code ,

Python collects the object
def __init__(self): through it’s garbage
print("Object created") collector so it automatically
calls the __del__() method
also
def __del__(self):
print("Object destroyed")
t=Test()
Output:
 How To Force Python
To Call __del__() ?

 If we want to force Python to call the __del__() method ,

then we will have to forcibly destroy the object

 To do this we have to use del operator passing it the

object reference
 Guess The Output ?

class Test:
def __init__(self):
print("Object created")

def __del__(self):
print("Object destroyed")
t1=Test()
del t1
print("done")
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Test:
We must remember that Python
def __init__(self): destroys the object only when the
print("Object created") reference count becomes 0 . Now
in this case after deleting t1 , still
the object is being refered by t2 .
def __del__(self): So the __del__() was not called
print("Object destroyed") on del t1. It only gets called when
t2 also goes out of scope at the
t1=Test()
end of the program and reference
t2=t1 count of the object becomes 0
del t1
print("done")
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Test:
def __init__(self):
print("Object created")

def __del__(self):
print("Object destroyed")
t1=Test()
t2=t1
del t1
print("t1 deleted")
del t2
print("t2 deleted")
print("done")

Output:
 PYTHON
LECTURE 44
 Today’s Agenda

• Advance Concepts Of Object Oriented

Programming-II

• Inheritance
• Types Of Inheritance
• Single Inheritance
• Using super( )
• Method Overriding
 Inheritance

 Inheritance is a powerful feature in object oriented

programming.

 It refers to defining a new class with little or no

modification to an existing class.

 The new class is called derived (or child) class and the
one from which it inherits is called the base (or parent)
class.
Real Life Examples
Real Life Examples
 Benefits

 It represents real-world relationships well.

 It provides reusability of a code. We don’t have to write

the same code again and again.

 It also allows us to add more features to a class without

modifying it.
Types Of Inheritance
Supported By Python
 Syntax Of Single Inheritance
In Python

class BaseClass:
Body of base class

class DerivedClass(BaseClass):
Body of derived class
For Ex:
class Account:
pass
class SavingAccount(Account):
pass
 Example

class Animal: duck=Bird()

def eat(self): duck.set_type("Duck")
print(duck)
print("It eats.")
duck.eat()
def sleep(self):
duck.sleep()
print("It sleeps.") duck.fly()
duck.speak("Quack")
class Bird(Animal):
def set_type(self,type): Output:
self.type=type
def fly(self):
print("It flies in the sky.")
def speak(self,sound):
print(f"It speaks:{sound},{sound}")
def __str__(self):
return "This is a "+self.type;
 Using super()

 In Python , to call parent class members from the child

class we can use the method super( ).

 Using super() is required in 2 situations:

 For calling parent class constructor

 For calling overridden methods

 How Constructors Behave
In Inheritance ?

 Whenever we create a child class object , Python looks

for __init__() method in child class.

 If the child class doesn’t contain an __init__() method

then Python goes up in the inheritance chain and looks for
the __init__() method of parent class
 How Constructors Behave
In Inheritance ?

 If the parent class contains __init__() , then it executes it

.

 Now an important point to notice is that if child class

also has __init__() , then Python will not call parent’s
__init__() method.

 That is , unlike Java or C++ , Python does not

automatically call the parent class __init__() if it finds an
__init__() method in child class
 How Constructors Behave
In Inheritance ?

class A:
def __init__(self):
print("Instantiating A...")
As you can see,
class B(A): Python called the
constructor of class
pass A , since B class
doesn’t has any
b=B() constructor defined

Output:
 How Constructors Behave
In Inheritance ?

class A:
def __init__(self):
print("Instantiating A...")
This time , Python
class B(A): did not call the
constructor of class
def __init__(self): A as it found a
print("Instantiating B...") constructor in B
itself
b=B()
Output:
 How Constructors Behave
In Inheritance ?

 So , what is the problem if parent constructor

doesn’t get called ?

 The problem is that , if parent class constructor doesn’t

get called then all the instance members it creates will
not be made available to child class
 How Constructors Behave
In Inheritance ?

class Rectangle: Since , constructor of

def __init__(self): Rectangle was not
called , so the
self.l=10
expression self.l
self.b=20 produced exception
class Cuboid(Rectangle): because there is no
def __init__(self): attribute created by
self.h=30 the name of l
def volume(self):
print("Vol of cuboid is",self.l*self.b*self.h)
obj=Cuboid()
obj.volume()
Output:
 How Can We Explicitly
Call __init__() Of
Parent Class ?

 If we want to call the parent class __init__() , then we

will have 2 options:

 Call it using the name of parent class explicitly

 Call it using the method super()

 Calling Parent Constructor
Using Name

class Rectangle:
def __init__(self): Notice that we have
self.l=10 to explicitly pass the
self.b=20 argument self while
calling __init__()
method of parent
class Cuboid(Rectangle):
class
def __init__(self):
Rectangle.__init__(self)
self.h=30
def volume(self):
print("Vol of cuboid is",self.l*self.b*self.h)

obj=Cuboid()
obj.volume()
Output:
 Calling Parent Constructor
Using super( )

class Rectangle:
Again notice that this
def __init__(self): time we don’t have to
self.l=10 pass the argument
self.b=20 self when we are
using super( ) as
class Cuboid(Rectangle): Python will
def __init__(self): automatically pass it
super().__init__();
self.h=30
def volume(self):
print("Vol of cuboid is",self.l*self.b*self.h)

obj=Cuboid()
obj.volume()
Output:
 What Really Is super( ) ?

 The method super() is a special method made available

by Python which returns a proxy object that delegates
method calls to a parent class

 In simple words the method super( ) provides us a special

object that can be used to transfer call to parent class
methods
 Benefits Of super( )

 A common question that arises in our mind is that why to use

super( ) , if we can call the parent class methods using parent
class name.

 The answer is that super( ) gives 4 benefits:

 We don’t have to pass self while calling any method using super( ).

 If the name of parent class changes after inheritance then we will not
have to rewrite the code in child as super( ) will automatically connect
itself to current parent

 It can be used to resolve method overriding

 It is very helpful in multiple inheritance

 Method Overriding

 To understand Method Overriding , try to figure out the

output of the code given in the next slide
 Guess The Output ?

class Person:
def __init__(self,age,name):
self.age=age
self.name=name
def __str__(self):
return f"Age:{self.age},Name:{self.name}"
class Emp(Person):
def __init__(self,age,name,id,sal):
super().__init__(age,name)
self.id=id
self.sal=sal

e=Emp(24,"Nitin",101,45000)
print(e)
Output:
 Explanation

 As we know , whenever we pass the name of an object

reference as argument to the function print( ) ,
Python calls the method __str__().

 But since the class Emp doesn’t has this method , so

Python moves up in the inheritance chain to find this
method in the base class Person

 Now since the class Person has this method , Python calls
the __str__() method of Person which returns only the
name and age
 Method Overriding

 Now if we want to change this behavior and show all 4

attributes of the Employee i.e. his name , age ,id and
salary, then we will have to redefine the method
__str__() in our Emp class.

 This is called Method Overriding

 Thus , Method Overriding is a concept in OOP which

occurs whenever a derived class redefines the same
method as inherited from the base class
 Modified Example

class Person:
def __init__(self,age,name):
self.age=age
self.name=name
def __str__(self):
return f"Age:{self.age},Name:{self.name}"
class Emp(Person):
def __init__(self,age,name,id,sal):
super().__init__(age,name)
self.id=id
self.sal=sal
def __str__(self):
return f"Age:{self.age},Name:{self.name},Id:{self.id},Salary:{self.sal}"
e=Emp(24,"Nitin",101,45000)
print(e)
Output:
 Role Of super( )
In Method Overriding

 When we override a method of base class in the

derived class then Python will always call the derive’s
version of the method.

 But in some cases we also want to call the base class

version of the overridden method.

 In this case we can call the base class version of the

method from the derive class using the function super( )
 Syntax:
super( ). <method_name>(<arg>)
 Modified Example

class Person:
def __init__(self,age,name):
self.age=age
self.name=name
def __str__(self):
return f"Age:{self.age},Name:{self.name}"
class Emp(Person):
def __init__(self,age,name,id,sal):
super().__init__(age,name)
self.id=id
self.sal=sal
def __str__(self):
str=super().__str__()
return f"{str},Id:{self.id},Salary:{self.sal}"
e=Emp(24,"Nitin",101,45000)
print(e)
Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to create a class called Circle having an instance member

called radius. Provide following methods in Circle class

 __init___() : This method should accept an argument and initialize radius with it

 area(): This method should calculate and return Circle’s area

 Now create a derived class of Circle called Cylinder having an instance

member called height. Provide following methods in Cylinder class

 __init___() : This method should initialize instance members radius and height
with the parameter passed.

 area( ): This method should override Circle’s area( ) to calculate and return area of
Cylinder . ( formula: 2πr2+2πrh)

 volume(): This method should calculate and return Cylinder’s

volume(formula: πr2h)
 Solution

import math obj=Cylinder(10,20)

class Circle: print("Area of cylinder is",obj.area())
def __init__(self,radius): print("Volume of cylinder is",obj.volume())
self.radius=radius
def area(self):
return math.pi*math.pow(self.radius,2)
class Cylinder(Circle):
def __init__(self,radius,height):
super().__init__(radius)
self.height=height
def area(self):
return 2*super().area()+2*math.pi*self.radius*self.height
def volume(self):
return super().area()*self.height

Output:
 A Very Important Point!

 Can we call the base class version of an overridden

method from outside the derived class ?

 For example , in the previous code we want to call the

method area( ) of Circle class from our main script .
How can we do this ?

 Yes this is possible and for this Python provides us a

special syntax:

 Syntax:
<base_class_name>.<method_name>(<der_obj>)
 Example

import math obj=Cylinder(10,20)

class Circle: print("Area of cylinder is",obj.area())
def __init__(self,radius): print("Volume of cylinder is",obj.volume())
print("Area of Circle:",Circle.area(obj))
self.radius=radius
def area(self):
return math.pi*math.pow(self.radius,2)
class Cylinder(Circle): By calling in this way
we can bypass the
def __init__(self,radius,height):
area( ) method of
super().__init__(radius) Cylinder and directly
self.height=height call area( ) method of
def area(self): Circle
return 2*super().area()+2*math.pi*self.radius*self.height
def volume(self):
return super().area()*self.height

Output:
 PYTHON
LECTURE 45
 Today’s Agenda

• Advance Concepts Of Object Oriented

Programming-III

• MultiLevel Inheritance

• Hierarchical Inheritance

• Using The Function issubclass( )

• Using The Function isinstance( )

 MultiLevel Inheritance

 Multilevel inheritance is also possible in Python like

other Object Oriented programming languages.

 We can inherit a derived class from another derived

class.

 This process is known as multilevel inheritance.

 In Python, multilevel inheritance can be done at any

depth.
MultiLevel Inheritance
 Syntax

class A:
# properties of class A

class B(A):
# class B inheriting property of class A
# more properties of class B

class C(B):
# class C inheriting property of class B
# thus, class C also inherits properties of class A
# more properties of class C
 Exercise

 Write a program to create 3 classes Person , Emp and Manager.

Desired Output
 Solution

class Person:
def __init__(self,age,name):
self.age=age
self.name=name
print("Person constructor called. . .")
def __str__(self):
return f"Age:{self.age},Name:{self.name}"
class Emp(Person):
def __init__(self,age,name,id,sal):
super().__init__(age,name)
self.id=id
self.sal=sal
print("Emp constructor called. . .")
def income(self):
return self.sal

def __str__(self):
str=super().__str__()
return f"{str},Id:{self.id},Salary:{self.sal}"
 Solution

class Manager(Emp):
def __init__(self,age,name,id,sal,bonus):
super().__init__(age,name,id,sal)
self.bonus=bonus
print("Manager constructor called. . .")
def income(self):
total=super().income()+self.bonus
Output:
return total
def __str__(self):
str=super().__str__()
return f"{str},Bonus:{self.bonus}"

m=Manager(24,"Nitin",101,45000,20000)
print(m)
print("Manager's Salary:",Emp.income(m))
print("Manager's Total Income:",m.income())
 Hierarchical Inheritance

 In Hierarchical Inheritance, one class is inherited by

many sub classes.
 Hierarchical Inheritance

 Suppose you want to write a program which has to keep

track of the teachers and students in a college.

 They have some common characteristics such as

name and age.

 They also have specific characteristics such as salary for

teachers and marks for students.
 Hierarchical Inheritance

 One way to solve the problem is that we can create two

independent classes for each type and process them.

 But adding a new common characteristic would mean

adding to both of these independent classes.

 This quickly becomes very exhaustive task

 Hierarchical Inheritance

 A much better way would be to create a common class

called SchoolMember and then have the Teacher and
Student classes inherit from this class

 That is , they will become sub-types of this type (class) and

then we can add specific characteristics to these sub-types
 Example

class SchoolMember:

def __init__(self, name, age):

self.name = name
self.age = age
print("Initialized SchoolMember:",self.name)

def tell(self):

print("Name:",self.name,"Age:",self.age, end=" ")

 Example

class Teacher(SchoolMember):

def __init__(self, name, age, salary):

super().__init__(name, age)
self.salary = salary
print("Initialized Teacher:", self.name)

def tell(self):
super().tell()
print("Salary:",self.salary)
 Example

class Student(SchoolMember):

def __init__(self, name, age, marks):

super().__init__(name, age)
self.marks = marks
print("Initialized Student:",self.name)

def tell(self): Output

super().tell()
print("Marks:",self.marks)
t = Teacher('Mr. Kumar', 40, 80000)
s = Student('Sudhir', 25, 75)
print()
members = [t, s]
for member in members:
member.tell()
 How To Check Whether
A Class Is A SubClass Of
Another ?

 Python provides a function issubclass() that directly tells

us if a class is a subclass of another class.

 Syntax:

issubclass(<name of der class>,<name of base class>)

 The function returns True if the classname passed as

first argument is the derive class of the classname
passed as second argument otherwise it returns False
 Guess The Output ?

class MyBase(object):
pass

class MyDerived(MyBase):
pass

print(issubclass(MyDerived, MyBase))
print(issubclass(MyBase, object))
print(issubclass(MyDerived, object))
print(issubclass(MyBase, MyDerived))
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class MyBase:
pass In Python 3 , every
class implicitly
class MyDerived(MyBase): inherits from object
class but in Python 2
pass it is not so. Thus in
Python 2 the 2nd and
print(issubclass(MyDerived, MyBase)) 3rd print( ) statements
would return False
print(issubclass(MyBase, object))
print(issubclass(MyDerived, object))
print(issubclass(MyBase, MyDerived))
Output:
 Alternate Way

 Another way to do the same task is to call the function

isinstance( )

 Syntax:

isinstance(<name of obj ref>,<name of class>)

 The function returns True if the object reference

passed as first argument is an instance of the
classname passed as second argument or any of it’s
subclasses. Otherwise it returns False
 Guess The Output ?

class MyBase:
pass Output:

class MyDerived(MyBase):
pass

d = MyDerived()
b = MyBase()
print(isinstance(d, MyBase))
print(isinstance(d, MyDerived))
print(isinstance(d, object))
print(isinstance(b, MyBase))
print(isinstance(b, MyDerived))
print(isinstance(b, object))
 PYTHON
LECTURE 46
 Today’s Agenda

• Advance Concepts Of Object Oriented

Programming-IV

• Multiple Inheritance
• The MRO Algorithm
• Hybrid Inheritance
• The Diamond Problem
 Multiple Inheritance

 Like C++, in Python also a class can be derived from

more than one base class.

 This is called multiple inheritance.

 In multiple inheritance, the features of all the base

classes are inherited into the derived class.
Multiple Inheritance
 Syntax

class A:
# properties of class A

class B:
#properties of class B

class C(A,B):
# class C inheriting property of class A
# class C inheriting property of class B
# more properties of class C
 Example

class Person: class ScienceStudent(Person,Student):

def __init__(self,name,age):
def __init__(self,name,age,roll,per,stream):
self.name=name Person.__init__(self,name,age)
self.age=age Student.__init__(self,roll,per)
def getname(self): self.stream=stream
def getstream(self):
return self.name return self.stream
def getage(self):
return self.age ms=ScienceStudent("Suresh",19,203,89.4,"maths")
print("Name:",ms.getname())
class Student:
print("Age:",ms.getage())
def __init__(self,roll,per): print("Roll:",ms.getroll())
self.roll=roll print("Per:",ms.getper())
self.per=per print("Stream:",ms.getstream())
def getroll(self):
return self.roll
Output:
def getper(self):
return self.per
 Guess The Output ?

class A:
Output:
def m(self):
print("m of A called")

Why did m( ) of A
class B: got called ?
def m(self):
print("m of B called") This is because of a
special rule in
Python called MRO
class C(A,B):
pass

obj=C()
obj.m()
 What Is MRO In Python ?

 In languages that use multiple inheritance, the order in

which base classes are searched when looking for a
method is often called the Method Resolution Order,
or MRO.

 MRO RULE :
 In the multiple inheritance scenario, any specified attribute is searched
first in the current class. If not found, the search continues into
parent classes, left-right fashion and then in depth-first
without searching same class twice.
 Can We See This MRO ?

 Yes, Python allows us to see this MRO by calling a method

called mro( ) which is present in every class by default.
 Example

class A:
def m(self):
print("m of A called")

class B:
def m(self):
print("m of B called")

class C(A,B):
pass
print(C.mro())
Output
 Another Way To See MRO ?

 There is a tuple also called __mro__ made available in

every class by Python using which we can get the same
output as before
 Example

class A:
def m(self):
print("m of A called")

class B:
def m(self):
print("m of B called")

class C(A,B):
pass
print(C.__mro__)
Output
 The Hybrid Inheritance

 This form combines more than one form of inheritance.

Basically, it is a blend of more than one type of inheritance.
 Example

class A: obj=D()
def m1(self): obj.m1()
print("m1 of A called") obj.m2()
class B(A): obj.m3()
def m2(self):
print("m2 of B called")
class C(A):
def m3(self):
print("m3 of C called")
class D(B,C):
pass
Output:
 The Diamond Problem

 The “diamond problem” is the generally used term for

an ambiguity that arises in hybrid inheritance .

 Suppose two classes B and C inherit from a superclass A,

and another class D inherits from both B and C.

 If there is a method "m" in A that B and C have

overridden, then the question is which version of the
method does D inherit?
 Guess The Output

class A:
def m(self): obj=D()
print("m of A called") obj.m()

class B(A): Why m() of B was called ?

def m(self):
print("m of B called") As discussed previously , Python
uses MRO to search for an
class C(A): attribute which goes from left to
def m(self): right and then in depth first.
print("m of C called") Now since B is the first
inherited class of D so Python
class D(B,C): called m( ) of B
pass
Output:
 Guess The Output

class A:
def m(self): obj=D()
print("m of A called") obj.m()

class B(A):
def m(self):
print("m of B called")

class C(A):
def m(self):
print("m of C called")

class D(C,B):
pass
Output:
 Guess The Output

class A:
obj=D()
def m(self):
obj.m()
print("m of A called")
Why m() of C was called ?
class B(A):
pass MRO goes from left to right first
and then depth first. In our case
class C(A): Python will look for method m()
def m(self): in B but it won’t find it there .
Then it will search m() in C
print("m of C called")
before going to A. Since it finds
m() in C, it executes it dropping
class D(B,C): the further search
pass
Output:
 Guess The Output

class A:
def m(self): obj=D()
print("m of A called") obj.m()

class B(A):
def m(self):
print("m of B called")

class C(A):
def m(self):
print("m of C called")

class D(B,C):
def m(self):
print("m of D called")
Output:
 Guess The Output

class A:
def m(self): obj=D()
print("m of A called") obj.m()
class B(A):
def m(self):
print("m of B called")

class C(A):
def m(self):
print("m of C called")

class D(B,C):
def m(self):
print("m of D called")
B.m(self)
C.m(self)
A.m(self)
Output:
 Guess The Output

class A:
def m(self): obj=D()
print("m of A called") obj.m()
class B(A):
def m(self):
print("m of B called") Why m() of A was called
A.m(self)
twice?
class C(A):
def m(self):
This is because we have
print("m of C called") called A.m(self) in both B
A.m(self) and C classes due to which
class D(B,C):
def m(self):
the method m() of A gets
print("m of D called") called 2 times
B.m(self)
C.m(self)
Output:
 Using super( ) To Solve
The Previous Problem

 In the previous code the method m( ) of A was getting

called twice.

 To resolve this problem we can use super( ) function to

call m() from B and C .

 As previously mentioned Python follows MRO and never

calls same method twice so it will remove extra call to
m( ) of A and will execute m() only once
 Guess The Output

class A:
def m(self): obj=D()
print("m of A called") obj.m()

class B(A):
def m(self):
print("m of B called")
super().m()
class C(A):
def m(self):
print("m of C called")
super().m()
class D(B,C):
def m(self):
print("m of D called")
super().m()
Output:
 PYTHON
LECTURE 47
 Today’s Agenda

• Advance Concepts Of Object Oriented

Programming-V

• Operator Overloading
 What Is
Operator Overloading?

 Operator overloading means redefining existing

operators in Python to work on objects of our classes.

 For example, a + operator is used to add the numeric

values as well as to concatenate the strings.

 That’s because operator + is overloaded for int class

and str class.
 What Is
Operator Overloading?

 But we can give extra meaning to this + operator and use it

with our own defined class.

 This method of giving extra meaning to the operators is

called operator overloading.
 Guess The Output ?

class Point:
def __init__(self,x,y):
self.x=x
self.y=y
def __str__(self): Why did TypeError occur?
return f"x={self.x},y={self.y}"
TypeError was raised since
Python didn't know how to
p1=Point(10,20) add two Point objects
p2=Point(30,40) together.
p3=p1+p2
print(p3)
Output:
 How To Perform
Operator Overloading?

 There is an underlying mechanism related to operators

in Python.

 The thing is when we use operators, a special function

or magic function is automatically invoked that is
associated with that particular operator.
 How To Perform
Operator Overloading?

 For example, when we use + operator, the magic

method __add__ is automatically invoked in which the
operation for + operator is defined.

 So by changing this magic method’s code, we can give

extra meaning to the + operator.
 Example

class Point:
def __init__(self,x,y):
self.x=x
self.y=y
def __add__(self,other):
x=self.x+other.x
y=self.y+other.y
p=Point(x,y)
return p

def __str__(self):
return f"x={self.x},y={self.y}“
p1=Point(10,20)
p2=Point(30,40)
p3=p1+p2
print(p3)
Output:
 Explanation

 When we wrote p1 + p2, then Python did the following:

 It searched for the magic method __add__() in our Point class since
the left side operand i.e. p1 is of Point class.

 After finding __add___() in our class Python converted our

statement p1+p2 to p1.__add__(p2) which in turn
is Point.__add__(p1,p2).

 So p1 is passed as self and p2 is passed to other

 Finally addition was done and a new object p was returned which was
copied to p3
 Guess The Output

class Point:
def __init__(self,x,y):
self.x=x
self.y=y
def __add__(self,other):
x=self.x+other.x
y=self.y+other.y
p=Point(x,y)
return p

def __str__(self):
return f"x={self.x},y={self.y}"
p1=Point(10,20)
p2=Point(30,40)
p3=p1+p2
print(p3)
p4=p1+p2+p3
print(p4)
Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to create a class called Distance having 2 instance

members called feet and inches . Provide following methods in Distance
class

 __init___() : This method should accept 2 arguments and initialize feet and
inches with it

 __str__(): This method should return string representation of feet and inches

 __add___() : This method should add 2 Distance objects and return another
Distance object as the result. While adding if sum of inches becomes >=12 then it
should be appropriately converted to feet
 Solution

class Distance: d1=Distance(10,6)

def __init__(self,feet,inches): d2=Distance(8,9)
self.feet=feet d3=d1+d2
print(d1)
self.inches=inches
print(d2)
def __add__(self,other):
print(d3)
feet=self.feet+other.feet
inches=self.inches+other.inches
if inches>=12:
feet=feet+inches//12
inches=inches%12
d=Distance(feet,inches)
return d

def __str__(self):
return f"feet={self.feet},inches={self.inches}“
Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Distance: d1=Distance(10,6)

def __init__(self,feet,inches): d2=Distance(8,9)
self.feet=feet d3=d1+d2
self.inches=inches
print(d1)
def __add__(self,other): Why did AttributeError
feet=self.feet+other.feet
print(d2)
occur ?
inches=self.inches+other.inches print(d3)
This is because Python is
if inches>=12: d4=d1+10 trying to use the int object
feet=feet+inches//12 print(d4) as Distance object and
inches=inches%12 since int class has no feet
d=Distance(feet,inches) data member the code is
return d throwing AttributeError

def __str__(self):
return f"feet={self.feet},inches={self.inches}“

Output:
 Solution

class Distance: d1=Distance(10,6)

def __init__(self,feet,inches): d2=Distance(8,9)
self.feet=feet d3=d1+d2
self.inches=inches
print(d1)
def __add__(self,other):
if isinstance(other,Distance):
print(d2)
feet=self.feet+other.feet print(d3)
inches=self.inches+other.inches d4=d1+10
else: print(d4)
feet=self.feet+other
inches=self.inches+other We have used isinstance()
if inches>=12: function to determine
feet=feet+inches//12 whether the argument
inches=inches%12 other is of type Distance or
d=Distance(feet,inches) not . If it is of type Distance
return d we perform usual addition
def __str__(self): logic , otherwise we simply
return f"feet={self.feet},inches={self.inches}“ add the argument other to
self.feet and self.inches as
Output: int value
 List Of Arithmetic Operator
For Overloading

Operator Expression Internally

Addition p1 + p2 p1.__add__(p2)

Subtraction p1 - p2 p1.__sub__(p2)

Multiplication p1 * p2 p1.__mul__(p2)

Power p1 ** p2 p1.__pow__(p2)

Division p1 / p2 p1.__truediv__(p2)

Floor Division p1 // p2 p1.__floordiv__(p2)

Remainder (modulo) p1 % p2 p1.__mod__(p2)

 Exercise

 Write a program to create a class called Book having 2 instance members

called name and price . Provide following methods in Book class

 __init___() : This method should accept 2 arguments and initialize nameand

price with it

 __str__(): This method should return string representation of name and price

 __add___() : This method should add price of 2 Books and return the total price
 Solution

class Book: b1=Book("Mastering Python",300)

def __init__(self,name,price): b2=Book("Mastering Java",500)
self.name=name print(b1)
print(b2)
self.price=price
print("Total price of books is:",b1+b2)

def __add__(self,other):
totalprice=self.price+other.price
return totalprice

def __str__(self):
return f"name={self.name},price={self.price}"

Output:
 Guess The Output ?

class Book: b1=Book("Mastering Python",300)

def __init__(self,name,price): b2=Book("Mastering Java",500)
self.name=name b3=Book("Mastering C++",400)
print(b1)
self.price=price
print(b2)
print(b3)
def __add__(self,other): print("Total price of books
totalprice=self.price+other.price is:",b1+b2+b3)
return totalprice

def __repr__(self):
return f"name={self.name},price={self.price}"

Output:
 Why Did TypeError Occur ?

 TypeError occurred because Python evaluated the statement

b1+b2+b3 as follows:

 At first it solved b1+b2 , which became b1.__add__(b2).

 So Python called __add__() method of Book class since the left operand
is b1 which is object of class Book

 This call returned the total price of b1 and b2 which is 800.

 Now Python used 800 as the calling object and b3 as argument so the
call became 800.__add__(b3).

 So Python now looks for a method __add__() in int class which can add
an int and a book but it could not find such a method in int class which can
take Book object as argument .

 So the code threw TypeError

 What Is The Solution To This
Problem ?

 The solution to this problem is to provide reverse special

methods in our class.

 The standard methods like __add__(),__sub__() only

work when we have object of our class as left operand .
 What Is The Solution To This
Problem ?

 But they don’t work when we have object of our class on

right side of the operator and left side operand is not
the instance of our class.

 For example : obj+10 will call __add__() internally,

but 10+obj will not call __add__()
 What Is The Solution To This
Problem ?

 Therefore, to help us make our classes mathematically

correct, Python provides us with reverse/reflected
special methods such
as __radd__(), __rsub__(), __rmul__(), and so on.

 These handle calls such as x + obj, x - obj, and x * obj,

where x is not an instance of the concerned class.
Reflected Operators
 Modified Example

class Book: b1=Book("Mastering Python",300)

def __init__(self,name,price): b2=Book("Mastering Java",500)
self.name=name b3=Book("Mastering C++",400)
print(b1)
self.price=price
print(b2)
def __add__(self,other):
print(b3)
totalprice=self.price+other.price print("Total price of books
return totalprice is:",b1+b2+b3)
def __radd__(self,other):
totalprice=self.price+other
return totalprice
def __str__(self):
return f"name={self.name},price={self.price}"
Output:
 List Of Relational Operator
For Overloading

Operator Expression Internally

Less than p1 < p2 p1.__lt__(p2)

Less than or equal to p1 <= p2 p1.__le__(p2)

Equal to p1 == p2 p1.__eq__(p2)

Not equal to p1 != p2 p1.__ne__(p2)

Greater than p1 > p2 p1.__gt__(p2)

Greater than or equal to p1 >= p2 p1.__ge__(p2)

 Exercise

 Write a program to create a class called Distance having 2 instance

members called feet and inches . Provide following methods in Distance
class

 __init___() : This method should accept 2 arguments and initialize feet and
inches with it

 __str__(): This method should return string representation of feet and inches

 __eq___() : This method should compare 2 Distance objects and return True if
they are equal otherwise it should return False
 Solution

class Distance: d1=Distance(0,12)

def __init__(self,feet,inches): d2=Distance(1,0)
self.feet=feet print(d1)
print(d2)
self.inches=inches
if d1==d2 :
def __eq__(self,other):
print("Distances are equal")
x=self.feet*12+self.inches else:
y=other.feet*12+other.inches print("Distances are not equal")
if x==y:
return True
else:
return False
def __str__(self):
return f"feet={self.feet},inches={self.inches}“
Output:
 List Of Shorthand Operator
For Overloading

Operator Expression Internally

-= p1-=p2 p1.__isub__(p2)

+= p1+=p2 p1.__iadd__(p2)

*= p1*=p2 p1.__imul__(p2)

/= p1/=p2 p1.__idiv__(p2)

//= p1//=p2 P1.__ifloordiv__(p2)

%= p1%=p2 p1.__imod__(p2)

**= p1**=p2 p1.__ipow__(p2)

 List Of Special Functions/Operators
For Overloading

Function/Operator Expression Internally

len( ) len(obj) obj.__len__(self)

[] obj[0] obj.__getitem__(self,index)

in var in obj obj.__contains__(self,var)

str( ) str(obj) obj.__str__(self)

 PYTHON
LECTURE 48
 Today’s Agenda

• Exception Handling
• Introduction To Exception Handling
• Exception Handling Keywords
• Exception Handling Syntax
• Handling Multiple Exceptions
• Handling All Exceptions
 What Is An Exception ?

 Exception are errors that occur at runtime .

 In other words , if our program encounters an abnormal

situation during it’s execution it raises an exception.

 For example,the statement

a=10/0
will generate an exception because Python has no way to
solve division by 0
 What Python Does When
An Exception Occurs ?

 Whenever an exception occurs , Python does 2 things :

 It immediately terminates the code

 It displays the error message related to the exception in a

technical way

 Both the steps taken by Python cannot be considered user

friendly because
 Even if a statement generates exception , still other parts of
the program must get a chance to run

 The error message must be simpler for the user to understand

 A Sample Code

a=int(input("Enter first no:"))

b=int(input("Enter second no:"))
c=a/b As we can observe , in the
second run the code
print("Div is",c) generated exception because
Python does not know how to
d=a+b handle division by 0.
Moreover it did not even
print("Sum is",d) calculated the sum of 10 and
0 which is possible
Output:
 A Sample Code

a=int(input("Enter first no:"))

b=int(input("Enter second no:"))
c=a/b In this case since it is not
print("Div is",c) possible for Python to covert
“2a” into an integer , so it
d=a+b generated an exception . But
the message it displays is too
print("Sum is",d) technical to understand
Output:
 How To Handle
Such Situations ?

 If we want our program to behave normally , even if an

exception occurs , then we will have to apply
Exception Handling

 Exception handling is a mechanism which allows us to

handle errors gracefully while the program is running
instead of abruptly ending the program execution.
 Exception Handling Keywords

 Python provides 5 keywords to perform Exception

Handling:

 try

 except

 else

 raise

 finally
 Exception Handling Syntax

 Following is the syntax of a Python try-except-else block.

try: Remember !
In place of Exception I and
You do your operations here; Exception II , we have to use
the names of Exception
......................
classes in Python
except ExceptionI:
If there is ExceptionI, then execute this block.
except ExceptionII:
If there is ExceptionII, then execute this block.
......................
else:
If there is no exception then execute this block.
 Improved Version
Of Previous Code

a=int(input("Enter first no:"))

b=int(input("Enter second no:"))
try:
c=a/b
print("Div is",c)
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Denominator should not be 0")
d=a+b
print("Sum is",d)
Output:
Exception Hierarchy
 Important Exception Classes

Exception Class Description

Exception Base class for all exceptions

ArithmeticError Raised when numeric calculations fails

Raised when a floating point

FloatingPointError
calculation fails
Raised when division or modulo by
ZeroDivisionError
zero takes place for all numeric types
Raised when result of an arithmetic
OverflowError
operation is too large to be represented
Raised when the imported module is not
ImportError
found in Python version < 3.6
Raised when the imported module is not
ModuleNotFoundError
found from Python version >=3.6
 Important Exception Classes

Exception Class Description

LookUpError Raised when searching /lookup fails

Raised when the specified key is not

KeyError
found in the dictionary
Raised when index of a sequence is out
IndexError
of range
Raised when an identifier is not found
NameError
in the local or global namespace
Raise when we use a local variable in a
UnboundLocalError
function before declaring it.
Raised when a function or operation is
TypeError
applied to an object of incorrect type
Raised when a function gets argument of
ValueError
correct type but improper value
 Important Exception Classes

Exception Class Description

Raised when a non-existent attribute is
AttributeError
referenced.
Raised when system operation causes
OSError
system related error.

FileNotFoundError Raised when a file is not present

Raised when we try to create a directory

FileExistsError
which is already present
Raised when trying to run an operation
PermissionError
without the adequate access rights.
SyntaxError Raised when there is an error in Python
syntax.
IndentationError Raised when indentation is not specified
properly.
 A Very Important Point!

 Amongst all the exceptions mentioned in the previous slides, we

cannot handle SyntaxError exception , because it is raised by
Python even before the program starts execution

 Example:

a=int(input("Enter first no:"))

b=int(input("Enter second no:"))
try:
c=a/b
print("Div is",c))
Output:
except SyntaxError:
print("Wrong Syntax")
d=a+b
print("Sum is",d)
 Handling Multiple Exception

 A try statement may have more than one except clause for
different exceptions.

 But at most one except clause will be executed

 Point To Remember

 Also , we must remember that if we are handling parent

and child exception classes in except clause then the
parent exception must appear after child exception ,
otherwise child except will never get a chance to run
 Guess The Output !

import math
try:

x=10/5
print(x)
ans=math.exp(3)
print(ans)

except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Division by 0 exception occurred!")
except ArithmeticError:
print("Numeric calculation failed!")
Output:
 Guess The Output !

import math
try:

x=10/0
print(x)
ans=math.exp(20000)
print(ans)

except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Division by 0 exception occurred!")
except ArithmeticError:
print("Numeric calculation failed!")
Output:
 Guess The Output !

import math
try:

x=10/5
print(x)
ans=math.exp(20000)
print(ans)

except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Division by 0 exception occurred!")
except ArithmeticError:
print("Numeric calculation failed!")
Output:
 Guess The Output !

import math
try:

x=10/5
print(x)
ans=math.exp(20000)
print(ans)

except ArithmeticError:
print("Numeric calculation failed!")
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Division by 0 exception occurred!")
Output:
 Guess The Output !

import math
try:

x=10/0
print(x)
ans=math.exp(20000)
print(ans)

except ArithmeticError:
print("Numeric calculation failed!")
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Division by 0 exception occurred!")
Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to ask the user to input 2 integers and

calculate and print their division. Make sure your program
behaves as follows:

 If the user enters a non integer value then ask him to enter only integers
 If denominator is 0 , then ask him to input non-zero denominator
 Repeat the process until correct input is given

 Only if the inputs are correct then display their division and
terminate the code
Sample Output
 Solution

while(True):
try:
a=int(input("Input first no:"))
b=int(input("Input second no:"))
c=a/b
print("Div is ",c)
break;
except ValueError:
print("Please input integers only! Try again")
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Please input non-zero denominator")
 Single except,
Multiple Exception

 If we want to write a single except clause to handle

multiple exceptions , we can do this .

 For this we have to write names of all the exceptions

within parenthesis separated with comma after the
keyword except
 Example

while(True):
try:
a=int(input("Input first no:"))
b=int(input("Input second no:"))
c=a/b
print("Div is ",c)
break
except (ValueError,ZeroDivisionError):
print("Either input is incorrect or denominator is 0. Try
again!")
Sample Output
 Handling All Exceptions

 We can write the keyword except without any exception

class name also .

 In this case for every exception this except clause will run
.

 The only problem will be that we will never know the type
of exception that has occurred!
 Exception Handling Syntax

 Following is the syntax of a Python handle all

exception block.

Notice , we have not provided

try: any name for the exception
You do your operations here;
......................
except :
For every kind of exception this block will execute
 Example

while(True):
try:
a=int(input("Input first no:"))
b=int(input("Input second no:"))
c=a/b
print("Div is ",c)
break
except:
print("Some problem occurred. Try again!")
Sample Output
 PYTHON
LECTURE 49
 Today’s Agenda

• Exception Handling
• Using Exception Object
• Getting Details Of Exception
• Raising An Exception
• Using finally Block
• Creating User Defined Exceptions
 Using Exception Object

 Now we know how to handle exception, in this section we

will learn how to access exception object in exception
handler code.

 To access the exception object created by Python we can

use the keyword as and assign it to a variable.

 Finally using that variable we can get the details of the

exception
 Example

while(True):
try:
a=int(input("Input first no:"))
b=int(input("Input second no:"))
c=a/b
print("Div is ",c)
break;
except (ValueError,ZeroDivisionError) as e:
print(e)
Sample Output
 Obtaining Exception Details

 Python allows us to get more details about the exception by

calling the function exc_info().

 Following are it’s important points:

 It is available in the module sys

 It returns a tuple containing 3 items called type, value and

traceback

 The variable type is the name of exception class, value is the instance of
exception class and traceback contains the complete trace of the
exception
 Example

while(True):
try:
a=int(input("Input first no:"))
b=int(input("Input second no:"))
c=a/b
print("Div is ",c)
break;
except:
a,b,c=sys.exc_info()
print("Exception class:",a)
print("Exception message:",b)
print("Line number:",c.tb_lineno)
Sample Output
 Obtaining Exception Details
Using traceback class

 Sometimes , we need to print the details of the exception

exactly like Python does .

 We do this normally , when we are debugging our code.

 The module traceback helps us do this

 Obtaining Exception Details
Using traceback module

 This module contains a function called format_exc( )

 It returns complete details of the exception as a string.

 This string contains:

 The program name in which exception occurred
 Line number where exception occurred
 The code which generated the exception
 The name of the exception class
 The message related to the exception
 Example

import traceback
while(True):
try:
a=int(input("Input first no:"))
b=int(input("Input second no:"))
c=a/b
print("Div is ",c)
break;
except:
print(traceback.format_exc())
Sample Output
 Raising An Exception

 We can force Python to generate an Exception using the

keyword raise.

 This is normally done in those situations where we want

Python to throw an exception in a particular condition of
our choice

 Syntax:
 raise ExceptionClassName
 raise ExceptionClassName( message )
 Exercise

 Write a program to ask the user to input 2 integers and

calculate and print their division. Make sure your program
behaves as follows:

 If the user enters a non integer value then ask him to enter only integers
 If denominator is 0 , then ask him to input non-zero denominator
 If any of the numbers is negative or numerator is 0 then
display the message negative numbers not allowed
 Repeat the process until correct input is given

 Only if the inputs are correct then display their division and
terminate the code
Sample Output
 Solution

while(True):
try:
a=int(input("Input first no:"))
b=int(input("Input second no:"))
if a<=0 or b<0:
raise Exception("Negative numbers not allowed!Try again")
c=a/b
print("Div is ",c)
break;
except ValueError:
print("Please input integers only! Try again")
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Please input non-zero denominator")
except Exception as e:
print(e)
 The finally Block

 If we have a code which we want to run in all situations,

then we should write it inside the finally block.

 Python will always run the instructions coded in the

finally block.

 It is the most common way of doing clean up tasks , like,

closing a file or disconnecting with the DB or
logging out the user etc
 Syntax Of The finally Block

 The finally block has 2 syntaxes:

Syntax 1
try:
# some exception generating code
except :
# exception handling code
finally:
# code to be always executed
Syntax 2
try:
# some exception generating code
finally:
# code to be always executed
 Guess The Output ?

while(True):
try:
a=int(input("Input first no:"))
b=int(input("Input second no:"))
c=a/b
print("Div is ",c)
break;
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Denominator should not be zero")
finally:
print("Thank you for using the app!")
Output:
 Creating User Defined
Exception

 Python has many built-in exceptions which forces our

program to output an error when something in it goes
wrong.

 However, sometimes we may need to create our own

exceptions which will be more suitable for our purpose.

 Such exceptions are called User Defined Exceptions

 Creating User Defined
Exception

 In Python, users can define such exceptions by creating a

new class.

 This exception class has to be derived, either directly or

indirectly, from Exception class.

 Most of the built-in exceptions are also derived form this

class.
 Example

class NegativeNumberException(Exception):
pass

while(True):
try:
a=int(input("Input first no:"))
b=int(input("Input second no:"))
if a<=0 or b<0:
raise NegativeNumberException("Negative numbers are not
allowed!Try again")
c=a/b
print("Div is ",c)
break;
except ValueError:
print("Please input integers only! Try again")
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Please input non-zero denominator")
except NegativeNumberException as e:
print(e)
 PYTHON
LECTURE 50
 Today’s Agenda

• Database Programming In Python-I

• What Is Data And Database ?

• What Is DBMS ?

• What Is SQL ?

• How To Configure Our System For Database

Programming In Python ?
 Introduction

 Before we learn about Database Programming In

Python, let's first understand -

 What is Data?

 What is Database ?
 Introduction

 What is Data?

 In simple words data can be facts or information.

 For example your name, population of a country , names of

political parties in your country , today’s temperature etc

 A picture , image , file , pdf etc can also be considered data.

 Introduction

 What is a Database?
 A database is a collection of inter-related data or information that is
organized so that it can easily be accessed, managed, and updated .

 Let's discuss few examples.

 Your mobile’s phone book is a database as it stores data pertaining to
people like their phone numbers, name and other contact details etc.

 Your University uses database to store student details like enrollment

no, name , address , academic performance etc

 Let's also consider the Facebook. It needs to store, manipulate and present
data related to members, their friends, member activities, messages,
advertisements and lot more. Here also database is used
 How Databases
Store The Data ?

 Most of the databases store their data in the form of tables

 Each table in a database has one or more columns, and each

column is assigned a specific data type, such as an integer
number, a sequence of characters (for text), or a date.

 Each row in the table has a value for each column.

How Databases
Store The Data ?
Components Of A Table
 What Is A DBMS ?

 A DBMS is a program or a software that allows users to

perform different operations on a database.

 These operations include:

 Creating the database/tables

 Inserting records into these tables

 Selecting records from these tables for displaying

 Updating / Deleting the records

What Is A DBMS ?
 Some Popular DBMS

 Some of the most popular DBMS are:

 Oracle

 MySQL

 MS SQL Server

 SQLite

 PostgreSQL

 IBM DB2

and many more

The Market Leader
 What Is SQL ?

 SQL is an abbreviation for “Structured Query

Language”.

 It is a language used by EVERY DBMS to interact with the

database.

 It provides us COMMANDS for inserting data to a

database, selecting data from the database and
modifying data in the database
Pictorial View Of SQL
 Database Programming
In Python

 Python is wonderfully able to interact with databases,

and this is what we will learn in this chapter.

 Advantages:

 Platform-independent

 Faster and more efficient

 Easy to migrate and port database application interfaces

 How Python Connects
To Database?

 Python uses the Python Database API in order to

interact with databases.

 An API stands for Application Programming

Interface.

 It is a set of predefined functions , classes and

methods given by the language for a particular task
and the programmer can use it whenever he wants to
perform that task in his code.
 How Python Connects
To Database?

 The Python Database API allows us to handle

different database management systems (DBMS) in
our Python code.

 However the steps at the code level remain

altogether same.

 That is using the same steps we can connect to Oracle or

MySQL or SQLite or any other DBMS
 Configuring Our Computer For
Database Programming In Python

 In order to write database application in Python we must

have following softwares/files installed on our computer.

 The DBMS with which we will interact . In our case it is Oracle .

 The Oracle Instant Client package. ( Reqd only for Oracle)

 Setting the path to Oracle Instant Client Package

 The Python’s Oracle module called cx_Oracle

 We assume that you already have Oracle installed , so in the

upcoming slides we will talk about next 3 steps
 What Is Oracle Instant Client ?

 Oracle Instant Client is a set Oracle libraries that

enable programming languages to connect to an
Oracle Database

 It is used by popular languages and environments including

Node.js, Python and PHP, as well as providing access for
JDBC, ODBC and Pro*C applications.
 Downloading Oracle Instant Client

 To download Oracle Instant Client , we will have to visit

the following site:

 https://oracle.github.io/odpi/doc/installation.html
#windows

 Scroll down to Windows option and click on 64 bit or 32

bit option as per your computer architecture.
Downloading Oracle Instant Client
 Downloading Oracle Instant Client

 When we will click on any of these options , we will be

redirected to Oracle Instant Client Downloads
for Microsoft Windows page.

 Here , we will have to click on license agreement and

download instantclientbasic-windows.x64 file
Downloading Oracle Instant Client
 Installing Oracle Instant Client

 Once we have downloaded this file , we need to unzip it and

extract all it’s file in a folder.

 For example , I have copied it to

d:\oracleinstall\instantclient folder
Installing Oracle Instant Client
 Setting The Path To
Oracle Instant Client

 In order for Python to use this library we need to set it’s

PATH as follows

 For example, on Windows 7, update PATH in Control

Panel -> System -> Advanced System Settings ->
Advanced -> Environment Variables -> System
Variables -> PATH.
Setting The Path To
Oracle Instant Client
Setting The Path To
Oracle Instant Client
Setting The Path To
Oracle Instant Client
Setting The Path To
Oracle Instant Client
Setting The Path To
Oracle Instant Client
 The cx_Oracle Module

 cx_Oracle is a Python extension module that enables

access to Oracle Database.

 It conforms to the Python database API

2.0 specification

 cx_Oracle 7 has been tested with Python version 2.7,

and with versions 3.5 through 3.8.
 The pip

 PIP is a package manager for Python packages, or

modules.

 We use it to download those Python packages from the

internet which are not a part of our standard Python
libraries.

 But before using pip , we must set it’s path by setting it’s
location in PATH environment variable
 Installing cx_Oracle Using pip

 Open command prompt and type the following command:

pip install cx_Oracle

 Make sure the internet connection is on before running this

command

 Doing this will automatically download and install

cx_Oracle package in our Python environment
Installing cx_Oracle Using pip
 Verifying The Installation

 In order to verify whether cx_Oracle has been properly

installed follow the steps below:

 Open Python shell

 Type the command : help(‘modules’).

 This will display all the modules currently installed and will
show the name of cx_Oracle also
Verifying The Installation
 PYTHON
LECTURE 51
 Today’s Agenda

• Database Programming In Python-II

• Steps Needed For Connecting To Oracle From Python

• Exploring Connection And Cursor Objects

• Executing The SQL Queries

• Different Ways Of Fetching The Data

 Steps Required For
Connecting Python Code To Oracle

 Connecting our Python app to any database involves

total 6 important steps.

 Also remember that these steps will always remain

same irrespective of the database we are trying to
connect

 The only difference will be the change in the name of

the module
 Steps Required For
Connecting Python Code To Oracle

 For connecting to Oracle , the steps are:

 Import the module cx_Oracle

 Establish a connection to the database.

 Create a cursor to communicate with the database.

 Execute the SQL query

 Fetch the result returned by the SQL query

 Close the cursor and connection to the database.

 Step 1-
Importing The Module

 Since we are connecting to Oracle , so all the functions

and classes we will be using will be supplied by the
module called cx_Oracle.

 So the first step will be to import this module by writing

the following statement:

import cx_Oracle
 Step 2-
Establishing The Connection

 After importing the module ,we must open the connection to the
Oracle server.

 This can be done by calling the function connect( ) of cx_Oracle

module having the following syntax:

cx_Oracle.connect( “connection_details”)

 Following is the description of this function:

 It accepts a connection string as argument of the following format
“username/password@ipaddress/oracle_service_name”

 If a connection is established with the Oracle server, then a Connection object is

returned.

 If there is any problem in connecting to the database , then this function throws the
exception called cx_Oracle.DatabaseError
 Important Attributes/Methods Of
Connection Object

 When the connection is successful , we get back the

cx_Oracle.Connection object.

 This object holds complete details of the connection and we can get
these details by calling it’s attributes or methods.

 Following are it’s important attributes:

 username: Returns the username used for the connection
 version: Returns Oracle version number

 Following are it’s important methods:

 cursor() : Return a new Cursor object using the connection.
 close(): Closes the connection
 commit(): Commits any pending transactions to the database.
 rollback(): Rollbacks any pending transactions.
 Example
import cx_Oracle
conn=None
try:
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/[email protected]/orcl")
print("Connected successfully to the DB")
print("Oracle version is ",conn.version)
print("Username is ",conn.username)
except (cx_Oracle.DatabaseError)as ex:
print("Error in connecting to Oracle:",ex)
finally:
if conn is not None:
conn.close()
print("Disconnected successfully from the DB")
Output:
 Step 3-
Creating The Cursor

 Once we have a connection, we need to get a cursor

 A Cursor allows us to send all the SQL commands from our

Python code to the database.

 It can also hold the set of rows returned by the query and lets us
work with the records in that set, in sequence, one at a time.

 To get a Cursor object we call the method cursor( ) of the

Connection object as follows:

cur=conn.cursor()
 Important Attributes/Methods Of
Cursor Object

 A Cursor object provides us some attributes and methods to execute

the SQL query and get back the results

 Following are it’s important attributes:

 rowcount: Returns the number of rows fetched or affected by the last operation,
or -1 if the module is unable to determine this value.

 Following are it’s important methods:

 execute(statement) : Executes an SQL statement string on the DB

 fetchall(): Returns all remaining result rows from the last query as a sequence of tuples
 fetchone(): Returns the next result row from the last query as a tuple
 fetchmany(n): Returns up to n remaining result rows from the last query as a sequence
of tuples.
 close(): Closes the cursor
 Step 4-
The execute( ) Method

 Syntax:

execute(SQL statement, [parameters], **kwargs)

 This method can accept an SQL statement - to be run

directly against the database. It executes this SQL query
and stores the result back in the calling cursor object.

 For example:
cur.execute('select * from allbooks')
 The execute( ) Method

 It can also accept Bind variables assigned through the

parameters or keyword arguments.

 We will discuss this later

 Step 5-
Fetching The Result

 Once we have executed the SELECT query , we would like

to retrieve the rows returned by it.

 There are numerous ways to do this:

 By iterating directly over the Cursor object

 By calling the method fetchone()

 By calling the method fetchall()

 We will discuss each of these methods after step 6

 Step 6-
Fetching The Result

 The final step will be to close the cursor as well as

close the connection to the database once we are done
with processing.

 This is done by calling the method close() on both the

objects.

 Example:
cur.close()
conn.close()
 An Important Point!

 During communication with Oracle , if any problem occurs

the methods of the module cx_Oracle throw an exception
called DatabaseError.

 So it is a best practice to execute cx_Oracle methods that

access the database within a try..except structure in order
to catch and report any exceptions that they might throw.
 Directly Iterating
Over The Cursor

 The Cursor object holds all the rows it retrieved from the
database as tuples.

 So if we iterate over the Cursor object using the for loop

, then we can retrieve these rows
 Exercise

 Assume you have a table called All_books in the database

which contains 4 columns called bookid, bookname,
bookprice and subject.

 Write a Python code to do the following:

 Connect to the database

 Execute the query to select name of the book and it’s price from the
table Allbooks

 Display the records

Sample Output
 Solution

import cx_Oracle
conn=None
cur=None
try:
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/tiger@Sachin-PC/orcl")
print("Connected successfully to the DB")
cur=conn.cursor()
cur.execute("Select bookname,bookprice from allbooks")
for x in cur:
print(x)
except (cx_Oracle.DatabaseError)as ex:
print("Error in connecting to Oracle:",ex)
finally:
if cur is not None:
cur.close()
print("Cursor closed successfully")
if conn is not None:
conn.close()
print("Disconnected successfully from the DB"
 Exercise

 Modify the code so that values are displayed without tuple

symbol i.e. without the symbol of ( )
 Sample Output
 Solution

import cx_Oracle
conn=None We will just have to unpack
cur=None each row of the tuple to get
try: the individual values
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/tiger@Sachin-PC/orcl")
print("Connected successfully to the DB")
cur=conn.cursor()
cur.execute("Select bookname,bookprice from allbooks")
for name,price in cur:
print(name,price)
except (cx_Oracle.DatabaseError)as ex:
print("Error in connecting to Oracle:",ex)
finally:
if cur is not None:
cur.close()
print("Cursor closed successfully")
if conn is not None:
conn.close()
print("Disconnected successfully from the DB"
 Using The Method fetchone( )

 Sometimes we may want to pull just one record at a time

from the table .

 As a result Cursor object provides us a method called

fetchone( ) .

 This method returns one record as a tuple, and if there

are no more records then it returns None
 Exercise

 Modify the previous code to display the name and price of

the costliest book from the table Allbooks
Sample Output
 Solution

import cx_Oracle
conn=None
cur=None
try:
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/tiger@Sachin-PC/orcl")
print("Connected successfully to the DB")
cur=conn.cursor()
cur.execute("Select bookname,bookprice from allbooks order by bookprice desc")
x=cur.fetchone()
if x is not None:
print(x)

except (cx_Oracle.DatabaseError)as ex:

print("Error in connecting to Oracle:",ex)
finally:
if cur is not None:
cur.close()
print("Cursor closed successfully")
if conn is not None:
conn.close()
print("Disconnected successfully from the DB")
 Exercise

 The previous code will only show first costliest book. In

other words , suppose we have more than one costliest
book then the previous code will only show the first book .

 Make the necessary changes in the code so that it shows all

the books which are at the highest price level
Sample Output
 Solution

# code before try same as previous

try:
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/tiger@Sachin-PC/orcl")
print("Connected successfully to the DB")
cur=conn.cursor()
cur.execute("Select bookname,bookprice from allbooks order by bookprice desc")
x=cur.fetchone()
price=x[1]
while True:
if price==x[1]:
print(x)
else:
break
x=cur.fetchone()
except (cx_Oracle.DatabaseError)as ex:
print("Error in connecting to Oracle:",ex)

# code after finally same as previous

 Using The Method fetchall( )

 Syntax:
cur.fetchall()

 The method fetches all rows of a query result set and

returns it as a list of tuples.

 If no more rows are available, it returns an empty list.

 Sample Code

import cx_Oracle
conn=None
cur=None
try:
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/tiger@Sachin-PC/orcl")
print("Connected successfully to the DB")
cur=conn.cursor()
cur.execute("Select bookname,bookprice from allbooks order by bookprice desc")
x=cur.fetchall()
print(x)
except (cx_Oracle.DatabaseError)as ex:
print("Error in connecting to Oracle:",ex)
finally:
if cur is not None:
cur.close()
print("Cursor closed successfully")
if conn is not None:
conn.close()
print("Disconnected successfully from the DB")
Output
 Exercise

 Modify the previous book application so that your code asks

the user to enter a record number and displays only that
book .

 Make sure if the record number entered by the user is

wrong then display appropriate message using exception
handling
Output
 Solution

import cx_Oracle
conn=None
cur=None
try:
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/tiger@Sachin-PC/orcl")
print("Connected successfully to the DB")
cur=conn.cursor()
cur.execute("Select bookname,bookprice from allbooks")
booklist=cur.fetchall()
recnum=int(input(f"Enter the record number(1 to
{len(booklist)}):"))
 Solution

if recnum <1 or recnum>len(booklist):

raise Exception(f"Record number should be between 1 to
{len(booklist)}")
else:
row=booklist[recnum-1]
print(f"{row[0]},{row[1]}")
except (cx_Oracle.DatabaseError)as ex:
print("Error in connecting to Oracle:",ex)
except (Exception) as ex:
print(ex)
finally:
if cur is not None:
cur.close()
print("Cursor closed successfully")
if conn is not None:
conn.close()
print("Disconnected successfully from the DB")
 PYTHON
LECTURE 52
 Today’s Agenda

• Database Programming In Python-III

• Executing INSERT Command

• Executing Dynamic Queries

• Concept Of Bind Variables

• Executing Update Command

• Executing Delete Command

 Inserting Record

 To insert a new record in the table we have to execute the

INSERT INTO command.

 It has 2 syntaxes:

 Insert into <table_name> values(<list of values>)

 Insert into <table_name>(<list of cols>) values(<list of

values>)
 Inserting Record

 To insert a record in the table from our Python code we simply

pass the insert query as argument to the execute( ) method of
cursor object.

 It’s general syntax is:

cur.execute(“insert query”)

 Two important points:

 After executing insert if we want to get the number of row inserted we can
use the cursor attribute rowcount

 Unless we call the method commit( ) of connection object , the record we

insert does not get saved in the table
 Steps Required For
Inserting Records

 For inserting record the overall steps are:

 Import the module cx_Oracle

 Establish a connection to the database.

 Create a cursor to communicate with the data.

 Execute the Insert query

 Commit the changes

 Close the connection to the database.

 Example

import cx_Oracle
conn=None
cur=None
try:
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/tiger@Sachin-PC/orcl")
print("Connected successfully to the DB")
cur=conn.cursor()
cur.execute("Insert into allbooks values(116,'Python Web Prog','Python',500)")
n=cur.rowcount
print(n," row inserted")
conn.commit()
except (cx_Oracle.DatabaseError)as ex:
print("Error in connecting to Oracle:",ex)
except (Exception) as ex:
print(ex)
finally:
if cur is not None:
cur.close()
print("Cursor closed successfully")
if conn is not None:
conn.close()
print("Disconnected successfully from the DB")
 Executing Dynamic Queries

 Dynamic queries are those where we set the values to

be passed in the query at run time.

 For example , we would like to accept the values of the

record to be inserted from the user and then pass it to
the insert query.

 Such queries are called dynamic query

 Executing Dynamic Queries

 Dynamic queries for Oracle can be set using the

concept of bind variables

 Bind variables are like placeholders used in a query ,

represented using :some_name or :some_number,
and are replaced with actual values before query execution.

 They can be set in 2 ways:

 Using position

 Using name
 Using bind variables
By Position
In this Insert query
:1,:2,:3 and :4 are
called bind variables
import cx_Oracle
and they will be
conn=None replaced with the
cur=None values of the actual
try: variables
id,name,subject and
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/tiger@Sachin-PC/orcl")
price before the query
print("Connected successfully to the DB")
is sent for execution.
cur=conn.cursor() Also , parenthesis is
id=int(input("Enter bookid:")) required because
these values are sent
name=input("Enter bookname:")
as a tuple
subject=input("Enter subject:")
price=int(input("Enter bookprice:"))
cur.execute("Insert into allbooks
values(:1,:2,:3,:4)",(id,name,subject,price))
n=cur.rowcount
print(n," row inserted")
conn.commit()
 Using bind variables
By Position

import cx_Oracle
conn=None
cur=None Here we have first packed
try: the variables id ,
name , subject and
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/tiger@Sachin-PC/orcl")
price into a tuple
print("Connected successfully to the DB") called myvalues and
cur=conn.cursor() then we have passed it
as argument to the
id=int(input("Enter bookid:")) method execute( )
name=input("Enter bookname:")
subject=input("Enter subject:")
price=int(input("Enter bookprice:"))
myvalues=(id,name,subject,price)
cur.execute("Insert into allbooks values(:1,:2,:3,:4)",myvalues)
n=cur.rowcount
print(n," row inserted")
conn.commit()
Sample Output
 Using bind variables
By Name

import cx_Oracle In this Insert query

conn=None the bind variables :bid
cur=None , :bname ,:sub and
try: :amt have to be
replaced with the
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/tiger@Sachin-PC/orcl")
values of the actual
print("Connected successfully to the DB") variables
cur=conn.cursor() id,name,subject and
id=int(input("Enter bookid:")) price , by using
name=input("Enter bookname:") dictionary or keyword
subject=input("Enter subject:") arguments
price=int(input("Enter bookprice:"))
cur.execute("Insert into allbooks
values(:bid,:bname,:sub,:amt)",({'bid':id,'bname':name,'sub':su
bject,'amt':price}))
n=cur.rowcount
print(n," row inserted")
conn.commit()
 Using bind variables
By Name

import cx_Oracle
In this Insert query
conn=None the bind variables
cur=None :bid , :bname ,:sub
try: and :amt have to be
replaced with
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/tiger@Sachin-PC/orcl")
print("Connected successfully to the DB") replaced with the
values of the actual
cur=conn.cursor() variables
id=int(input("Enter bookid:")) id,name,subject and
name=input("Enter bookname:") price , by using
subject=input("Enter subject:") dictionary or
price=int(input("Enter bookprice:")) keyword arguments
cur.execute("Insert into allbooks
values(:bid,:bname,:sub,:amt)",bid=id,bname=name,sub=subje
ct,amt=price)
n=cur.rowcount
print(n," row inserted")
conn.commit()
Sample Output
 Important Points About
bind variables

 The number of bind variables and the number of

actual values must always be the same.

 When we pass bind variables by position it doesn’t

matter what numbers we are using . For example , even this
is also a valid query:

cur.execute("Insert into allbooks values

(:1,:4,:6,:12)",(id,name,subject,price))
 Important Points About
bind variables

 We even can use letters while giving names to bind

variables used as position. So this query will also do the
same job as previous queries:

cur.execute("Insert into allbooks values

(:a,:b,:c,:d)",(id,name,subject,price))
 Updating Record

 To update a record in the table we have to execute the

UPDATE command.

 It has 2 syntaxes:

 Update <table name> set <col name>=<value>

 Update <table name> set <col name>=<value> where

<test condition>
 Updating Record

 Updating a record through Python code is same as inserting a

new record. .

 We call the method execute( ) of cursor object passing it the

update query.

 It’s general syntax is:

cur.execute(“update query”)

 If the query is dynamic then we can use bind variables for

setting the values at run time.
 Example

import cx_Oracle
conn=None
cur=None
try:
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/tiger@Sachin-PC/orcl")
print("Connected successfully to the DB")
cur=conn.cursor()
cur.execute("Update allbooks set bookprice=500 where bookid=125 ")
n=cur.rowcount
print(n," rows updated")
conn.commit()
except (cx_Oracle.DatabaseError)as ex:
print("Error in connecting to Oracle:",ex)
except (Exception) as ex:
print(ex)
finally:
if cur is not None:
cur.close()
print("Cursor closed successfully")
if conn is not None:
conn.close()
print("Disconnected successfully from the DB")
 Exercise

 Write a program to accept a subject name and an

amount from the user and increase the price of all the
books of the given subject by adding the amount in the
current price. Finally display whether books were
updated or not and how many books were updated
 Sample Output

Sample Run 1

Sample Run 2
 Solution

import cx_Oracle
conn=None
cur=None
try:
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/tiger@Sachin-PC/orcl")
print("Connected successfully to the DB")
subject=input("Enter subject name:")
amount=int(input("Enter the amount to increase:"))
cur=conn.cursor()
cur.execute("Update allbooks set bookprice=bookprice+:1 where subject=:2",(amount,subject))
n=cur.rowcount
if n==0:
print("No rows updated")
else:
print(n, "rows updated")
conn.commit()
except (cx_Oracle.DatabaseError)as ex:
print("Error in connecting to Oracle:",ex)
except (Exception) as ex:
print(ex)
finally:
if cur is not None:
cur.close()
print("Cursor closed successfully")
if conn is not None:
conn.close()
print("Disconnected successfully from the DB")
 Deleting Record

 To delete a record from the table we have to execute the

DELETE command.

 It has 2 syntaxes:

 Delete from <table name>

 Delete from <table name> where <test condition>

 Deleting Record

 Deleting a record through Python code is same as

updating/inserting a record. .

 We call the method execute( ) of cursor object passing it the

delete query.

 It’s general syntax is:

cur.execute(“delete query”)

 If the query is dynamic then we can use bind variables for

setting the values at run time.
 Example

import cx_Oracle
conn=None
cur=None
try:
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/tiger@Sachin-PC/orcl")
print("Connected successfully to the DB")
cur=conn.cursor()
cur.execute("Delete from allbooks where bookid=131")
n=cur.rowcount
print(n," row deleted")
conn.commit()
except (cx_Oracle.DatabaseError)as ex:
print("Error in connecting to Oracle:",ex)
except (Exception) as ex:
print(ex)
finally:
if cur is not None:
cur.close()
print("Cursor closed successfully")
if conn is not None:
conn.close()
print("Disconnected successfully from the DB")
 Exercise

 Write a program to accept a subject name from the user

and delete all the books of the given subject .Finally
display whether books were deleted or not and how many
books were deleted
 Sample Output

Sample Run 1

Sample Run 2
 Solution

import cx_Oracle
conn=None
cur=None
try:
conn=cx_Oracle.connect("scott/tiger@Sachin-PC/orcl")
print("Connected successfully to the DB")
cur=conn.cursor()
subject=input("Enter subject name:")
cur.execute("Delete from allbooks where subject=:1",(subject,))
n=cur.rowcount
if n==0:
print("No rows deleted")
else:
print(n," rows deleted")
conn.commit()
except (cx_Oracle.DatabaseError)as ex:
print("Error in connecting to Oracle:",ex)
except (Exception) as ex:
print(ex)
finally:
if cur is not None:
cur.close()
print("Cursor closed successfully")
if conn is not None:
conn.close()
print("Disconnected successfully from the DB")
 PYTHON
LECTURE 53
 Today’s Agenda

• File Handling
• What Is File Handling ?
• What Is The Need Of File Handling ?
• Examples Where Files Are Used?
• Python’s Way Of Handling Files
• File Opening Modes
• Writing In A File
• Different Ways For Reading From A File
 What Is File Handling ?

 File handling is the process of accessing data files stored

in the secondary memory of our computer.

 It allows us to perform various operations on these

files through our program like renaming files,
deleting file, moving file and above all reading and
writing the contents in a File
What Is File Handling ?
 Real Life Examples Of
File Handling

 Mobile’s Phonebook

 Computer/Mobile Games

 Call Logs

 Gallery In Mobile

 User Accounts In Operating System

 Windows Registry
 Steps Needed For File Handling

 Broadly , file handling involves 3 steps:

 Open the file.

 Process file i.e perform read or write operation.

 Close the file.

 Step -1 : Opening The File

 Before we can perform any operation on a file, we must

open it.

 Python provides a function called open() to open a file.

 Syntax:

fileobject = open(filename, mode)

 The filename is the name or path of the file.

 The mode is a string which specifies the type operation we want to

perform on the file (i.e read, write, append, etc). Default is read
 File Opening Modes

Mode Description

Opens the file for reading. If the file doesn't

"r" already exists we will
get FileNotFoundError exception

Opens the file for writing. In this mode, if

file specified doesn't exists, it will be
"w" created. If the file exists, then it's data is
destroyed. If the path is incorrect then we
will get FileNotFoundError exception

Opens the file in append mode. If the file

doesn't exists this mode will create the file.
"a" If the file already exists then it appends new
data to the end of the file rather than
destroying data as "w" mode does.
 File Opening Modes

Mode Description

“r+” Open file for both reading and writing.

Open a file for both writing and reading. If

file exist then it will overwrite the file
“w+”
otherwise first create a file and after that
opens the file.

Open file for appending and reading. If file

“a+” already exist then pointer will set at the
end of file otherwise a new file will create.
 Examples Of Opening File

 Example 1:
 f = open("employees.txt", "r")

 This statement opens the file employees.txt for reading.

 Example 2:
 f = open("teams.txt", "w")

 This statement opens the file teams.txt in write mode.

 Example 3:
 f = open("teams.txt", "a")

 This statement opens the file teams.txt in append mode.

 Examples Of Opening File

 Instead of using relative file paths we can also use

absolute file paths.

 For example:
 f = open("C:/Users/sachin/documents/README.txt", "w")

 This statements opens the text file README.txt that is

in C:\Users\sachin\documents\ directory in write
mode.
 Examples Of Opening File

 We can also use something called "raw string" by

specifying r character in front of the string as follows:

 f = open(r"C:\Users\sachin\documents\README.txt", "w")

 The r character causes the Python to treat every character

in string as literal characters.
 Step -3 : Closing The File

 Once we are done working with the file or we want to open

the file in some other mode, we should close the file
using close() method of the file object as follows:

 f.close()
 The TextIOWrapper Class

 The file object returned by open() function is an object of

type TextIOWrapper.

 The class TextIOWrapper provides methods and

attributes which helps us to read or write data from and
to the file.

 In the next slide we have some commonly used methods

of TextIOWrapper class.
 Methods Of
The TextIOWrapper Class

Method Description
Reads the specified number of characters
from the file and returns them as string.
read([num])
If num is omitted then it reads the entire
file.
readline() Reads a single line and returns it as a string.
Reads the content of a file line by line and
readlines()
returns them as a list of strings.
Writes the string argument to the file and
write(str) returns the number of characters written to
the file.
Moves the file pointer to the given offset
seek(offset, origin)
from the origin.
Returns the current position of the file
tell()
pointer.
close() Closes the file
 Exceptions Raised In
File Handling

 Python generates many exceptions when something

goes wrong while interacting with files.

 The 2 most common of them are:

 FileNotFoundError: Raised when we try to open a file that doesn't

exist

 OSError: Raise when an operation on file cause system related error.

 Exercise

 Write a program to create a file called message.txt in d:\ of

your computer .

 Now ask the user to type a message and write it in the file .

 Finally display how many capital letters, how many small

letters , how many digits and how many special
characters were written in the file.

 Also properly handle every possible exception the code can throw
Sample Output
 Solution

fout=None print("File saved successfully!")

print("Total upper case letters are :",upper)
try:
print("Total lower case letters are :",lower)
fout=open("d:\\message.txt","w") print("Total digits are :",digits)
text=input("Type a message:") print("Total special characters are :",
upper=0 len(text)-(lower+upper+digits))
except FileNotFoundError as ex:
lower=0 print("Could not create the file: ",ex)
digits=0
for ch in text: except OSError:
print(“Some error occurred while writing”)
fout.write(ch)
if 65<=ord(ch)<=90: finally:
upper+=1 if not fout is None:
elif 97<=ord(ch)<=122: fout.close()
print("File closed successfully")
lower+=1
elif 48 <=ord(ch)<=57:
digits+=1
 Exercise

 Write a program to open the message.txt created by the

previous code.

 Now read and display the contents of the file.

 Also properly handle every possible exception the code can

throw
 Solution

fin=None
try:
fin=open("d:\\message.txt","r")
text=fin.read()
print(text)
except FileNotFoundError as ex:
print("Could not open the file: ",ex)

finally:
if fin is not None:
fin.close()
print("File closed successfully")

Output:
 Exercise

 Write a program to create a file called message.txt in d:\ of your

computer .

 Now ask the user to continuously type messages and save them in the
file line by line.

 Stop when the user strikes an ENTER key on a new line

 Finally display how many lines were written in the file.

 Also properly handle every possible exception the code can throw
Sample Output
 Solution

fout=None
try:
fout=open("d:\\message.txt","w")
text=input("Type your message and to stop just press ENTER on a newline\n")
lines=0
while True:
if text=="":
break
lines+=1
fout.write(text+"\n")
text=input()

print("File saved successfully!")

print("Total lines written are :",lines)

except FileNotFoundError as ex1:

print("Could not create the file: ",ex1)

except OSError as ex2:

print(ex2)

finally:
if fout is not None:
fout.close()
print("File closed successfully")
 Exercise

 Write a program to open the message.txt created by the

previous code.

 Now read and display the contents of the file line by line.

 Finally also display total number of lines read from the

file.

 Also properly handle every possible exception the code can

throw
Sample Output
 Solution

try:
fin=open("d:\\message.txt","r")
lines=0
while True:
text=fin.readline()
if text=="":
break
lines+=1
print(text,end="")

print("Total lines read are :",lines)

except FileNotFoundError as ex:

print("Could not open the file: ",ex)

finally:
if fin is not None:
fin.close()
print("File closed successfully")
 Using for Loop To
Read The File

 Python allows us to use for loop also to read the contents

of the file line by line.

 This is because the object of TextIOWrapper is also a

kind of collection/sequence of characters fetched from
the file.

 The only point is that when we use for loop on the file
object , Python reads and returns one line at a time.
 Exercise

 Write a program to open the message.txt created by the

previous code.

 Now read and display the contents of the file line by line.

 Finally also display total number of lines read from the

file.

 Also properly handle every possible exception the code can

throw
 Solution

fin=None
try:
fin=open("d:\\message.txt","r")
lines=0
for text in fin:
print(text,end="")
lines+=1
print("Total lines read are :",lines)

except FileNotFoundError as ex:

print("Could not open the file: ",ex)

finally:
if fin is not None:
fin.close()
print("File closed successfully")