Cyber Security

Module-I: Introduction to Cyber security

Defining Cyberspace and Overview of Computer and Web-technology, Architecture of
cyberspace, Communication and web technology, Internet, World wide web, Advent of
internet, Internet infrastructure for data transfer and governance, Internet society,
Regulation of cyberspace, Concept of cyber security, Issues and challenges of cyber
security.

Defining Cyberspace
 The term Cyberspace was first coined by William Gibson in the year 1984.
 Cyberspace is the environment in which communication over computer networks occurs.
 Cyberspace is the virtual and dynamic space created by the machine clones. Cyberspace
mainly refers to the computer which is a virtual network and is a medium electronically
designed to help online communications to occur.
 The primary purpose of creating cyberspace is to share information and communicate
across the globe.
 Cyberspace is that space in which users share information, interact with each other; engage
in discussions or social media platforms, and many other activities.
 The whole Cyberspace is composed of large computer networks which have many sub-
networks. These follow the TCP or IP protocol.

Overview of Computer and Web-technology

Computer and web technology are integral parts of our modern world, shaping how we
communicate, work, learn, and entertain ourselves.
Computer Technology:
1. Hardware: Computers consist of physical components like the central processing unit (CPU),
memory (RAM), storage devices (HDD/SSD), input/output devices (keyboard, mouse,
monitor), and more. These components work together to process and store data.
2. Software: Software includes the operating system (e.g., Windows, macOS, Linux) and
various applications (e.g., Microsoft Office, web browsers, video games) that run on a
computer. Operating systems manage hardware resources and provide a user interface.

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3. Networking: Computers can connect to each other and the internet via wired (e.g.,
Ethernet) or wireless (e.g., Wi-Fi) networks. Networking enables data sharing,
communication, and remote access.
4. Security: Computer security is crucial to protect data and systems from threats like viruses,
malware, and hackers. Antivirus software, firewalls, and encryption are common security
measures.
5. Processing Power: Moore's Law predicts that the processing power of computers doubles
approximately every two years. This constant improvement drives innovations in various
fields, including artificial intelligence, scientific research, and data analysis.
Web Technology:
1. World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web, commonly referred to as the web, is a
global system of interconnected documents and resources linked through hyperlinks. It
is accessed via web browsers.
2. Web Browsers: Web browsers like Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Microsoft Edge
allow users to access and interact with web content.
3. Web Development: Web development involves creating and maintaining websites and
web applications.
4. Web Servers: Web servers store and deliver web content to users' browsers upon
request. Popular web server software includes Apache, Microsoft IIS.
5. Web Security: Ensuring web security is critical to protect data and user privacy.
Measures include SSL/TLS encryption, secure authentication, and regular security
audits.
6. Web Standards: Organizations like the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) establish
web standards to ensure compatibility and accessibility across different devices and
browsers.
Architecture of cyberspace
There isn't a single, specific architecture for cyberspace, as it encompasses a wide range of
technologies, protocols, and platforms. Some key components and concepts related to the
architecture of cyberspace are:
1. Network Infrastructure: At the core of cyberspace is the global network infrastructure,
often referred to as the Internet. This infrastructure comprises a vast array of

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interconnected physical and virtual components, including routers, switches, data centers,
and undersea cables. The Internet's architecture is based on the Internet Protocol (IP),
which allows data packets to be routed across the network.
2. Protocols: Various communication protocols define how data is transmitted and received in
cyberspace. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) are
fundamental to the functioning of the Internet. Other protocols like HTTP (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
govern specific types of data exchange.
3. Domain Name System (DNS): DNS is a crucial component of cyberspace that translates
human-readable domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP addresses. This system
enables users to access websites and resources by name rather than needing to remember
numeric IP addresses.
4. Data Centers: Data centers house the servers and storage infrastructure that store and
deliver digital content and services. They play a pivotal role in hosting websites, applications,
and cloud services.
5. Cybersecurity: The architecture of cyberspace includes various security measures to protect
data, networks, and users. Firewalls, encryption, intrusion detection systems, and antivirus
software are examples of cybersecurity components.
6. Web and Application Servers: These servers host websites, web applications, and other
online services. They respond to user requests, retrieve data from databases, and deliver
content to users' devices.
7. User Devices: These are the various devices through which users access cyberspace,
including computers, smartphones, tablets, and IoT devices. Each device has its own
hardware and software components that enable connectivity and interaction with
cyberspace.
8. Cloud Computing: Cloud services and platforms are an integral part of cyberspace
architecture. Cloud providers offer scalable computing resources, storage, and services,
allowing organizations to leverage the cloud for various purposes.
9. Social Media and Online Communities: Cyberspace also includes virtual communities and
social media platforms that enable users to connect, share information, and collaborate
online. These platforms have their own architectures and algorithms for content delivery
and interaction.

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10. Internet of Things (IoT): IoT devices are connected to cyberspace, enabling them to collect
and exchange data with other devices and systems. They play a role in creating the "smart"
aspect of cyberspace, connecting physical objects to the digital realm.
11. Regulations and Governance: Various laws and regulations govern cyberspace to ensure
security, privacy, and fair use. Organizations like ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers) oversee domain name management, while governments have
jurisdiction over aspects like data protection and cybersecurity.
Cyberspace is a dynamic and evolving environment, with new technologies and architectures
continually emerging. Its architecture is shaped by the needs of users, businesses, governments,
and the broader digital ecosystem. As such, it remains a subject of ongoing development,
discussion, and adaptation.

Communication and web technology

Communication and web technology are integral components of the modern digital landscape.
They encompass a wide range of technologies and tools that facilitate communication and the
dissemination of information over the internet. Some key aspects of communication and web
technology are:
1. Internet: The internet is the foundation of web technology. It is a global network of
interconnected computers and servers that allows for the transfer of data and information
across the world.
2. Web Browsers: Web browsers like Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Edge are software
applications that enable users to access and interact with websites and web-based
applications.
3. Websites: Websites are collections of web pages that are hosted on web servers and can be
accessed through a web browser. They are created using various web technologies such as
HTML, CSS, and JavaScript.
4. Web Development: Web development involves designing, creating, and maintaining
websites. Web developers use various programming languages and frameworks to build
web applications and sites.
5. Web Standards and Protocols: Various standards and protocols govern web technology,
including HTTP/HTTPS (for data transfer), HTML5, CSS3, and more.

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6. Mobile Web: Mobile web technology focuses on optimizing websites and applications for
mobile devices, ensuring a seamless user experience on smartphones and tablets.
Internet
 The word Internet is derived from the word internetwork, or the connecting together two
or more computer networks.
 The Internet started in the 1960s as a way for government researchers to share information.
 Computers in the '60s were large and immobile and in order to make use of information
stored in any one computer, one had to either travel to the site of the computer or have
magnetic computer tapes sent through the conventional postal system.
 January 1, 1983 is considered the official birthday of the Internet. Prior to this, the various
computer networks did not have a standard way to communicate with each other.
 A new communications protocol was established called Transfer Control
Protocol/Internetwork Protocol (TCP/IP). This allowed different kinds of computers on
different networks to "talk" to each other.
 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
− TCP/IP is a suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on
the Internet.
− TCP establishes the connections between sending and receiving computers, and makes
sure that packets sent by one computer are received in the same sequence by the other,
without any packets missing.
− IP provides the Internet’s addressing scheme and is responsible for the actual delivery
of the packets.
− TCP/IP is divided into four separate layers, with each layer handling a different aspect of
the communication problem.

World Wide Web (WWW)

 The World Wide Web was invented by a British scientist, Tim Berners-Lee in 1989.
 World Wide Web, which is also known as a Web, is a collection of websites or web pages
stored in web servers and connected to local computers through the internet.

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 These websites contain text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc. Users can access the
content of these sites from any part of the world over the internet using their devices such
as computers, laptops, cell phones, etc.
 The WWW, along with the internet, enables the retrieval and display of text and media to
your device.
 The building blocks of the Web are web pages which are formatted in HTML and connected
by links called "hypertext" or hyperlinks and accessed by HTTP.
Advent of internet
 The Internet started off with research into what was then known as packet switching as
early as the 1960s.
 ARPANET is considered the first known group of interconnected computers aka the internet.
This system was used to transfer confidential data between the Military.
 This data-sharing technology was then opened to educational institutes in the United States
to allow them to access to government’s supercomputer, first at 56 kbit/s, then at 1.5
Mbit/s, and then at 45 Mbit/s.
 Internet service providers began to arise in the late 1980s and the internet was fully
commercialized in the US by 1995.
 The history of the Internet can be segmented into three phases
1. Innovation Phase
2. Institutionalization Phase
3. Commercialization Phase

Innovation Phase (1961 to 1974)

− The fundamental building blocks of the Internet—packet-switching hardware, a
communications protocol called TCP/ IP, and client/server computing were
conceptualized and then implemented in actual hardware and software.

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Institutionalization Phase (1975 to 1995)

− large institutions such as the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and the National
Science Foundation (NSF) provided funding and legitimization for the fledging
Internet.
Commercialization Phase (1995 to the present)
− The U.S. government encouraged private corporations to take over and expand the
Internet backbone as well as local service beyond military installations and college
campuses to the rest of the population around the world.
Internet infrastructure for data transfer and governance
 Internet infrastructure for data transfer and governance encompasses the physical and
virtual systems, protocols, and regulations that enable the secure, efficient, and reliable
exchange of data across the global network.
 This infrastructure plays a critical role in ensuring data privacy, security, and compliance with
regulations.
 Here are key components and considerations for internet infrastructure related to data
transfer and governance:
1. Network Infrastructure
− Backbone Networks: High-speed, long-distance networks that form the core of the
internet, connecting major data centers and internet exchange points (IXPs).
− Last-Mile Connectivity: The connection from service providers to end-users,
including wired (e.g., fiber-optic, DSL) and wireless (e.g., 5G, Wi-Fi) technologies.
− Data Centers: Facilities that house servers and storage devices, providing the
infrastructure for web hosting, cloud computing, and data storage.
2. Protocols and Standards
− Internet Protocol (IP): The foundation of internet communication, ensuring data
packets can be routed across networks.
− Transport Layer Security (TLS): Encryption protocol for securing data in transit.
− Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and HTTPS: Protocols for web data transfer, with
HTTPS adding a security layer.
− DNSSEC: Enhances the Domain Name System (DNS) by adding a layer of security
through digital signatures.

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3. Data Centers and Cloud Services

− Major providers like Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, and Google
Cloud offer robust infrastructure and tools for data storage and processing.
4. Data Governance and Regulation
− Data Privacy Regulations: Compliance with laws like GDPR (in Europe), CCPA (in
California), and HIPAA (for healthcare data).
− Data Retention Policies: Guidelines for storing and managing data for specific
periods.
− Data Access Controls: Systems to restrict and monitor who can access and modify
data.
− Data Encryption: Ensuring data at rest and in transit is properly encrypted to
protect against unauthorized access.
5. Cybersecurity
− Robust security measures, including firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and
regular security audits, are essential to protect data during transfer.
6. Internet Governance Bodies
− Organizations like ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers)
oversee domain name system management and policy.
− Multistakeholder governance models involve various stakeholders, including
governments, businesses, and civil society, in shaping internet governance.
7. Content Delivery Networks (CDNs)
− CDNs like Akamai and Cloudflare optimize data delivery by caching content at
various locations worldwide, reducing latency.
8. Quality of Service (QoS)
− Ensuring data transfer meets performance requirements, especially for applications
like video conferencing and online gaming.
9. International Collaboration
− Cooperation among nations is essential to establish international norms and
agreements related to data transfer and governance.

10. Data Transfer Agreements

− Agreements like Privacy Shield and Standard Contractual Clauses facilitate the
lawful transfer of data across borders.

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Internet society
 Internet Society (ISOC) A professional membership society that promotes the use and future
development of the Internet. It has individual and organization members all over the world
and is governed by an elected board of trustees. ISOC coordinates various groups
responsible for Internet infrastructure.
 These include
1. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF),
2. The Internet Architecture Board (IAB), and
3. The Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG).
 The IETF develops technical standards for the Internet.
 The IAB has overall responsibility for the architecture and adjudicates on disputes about
standards.
 The IESG, along with the IAB, reviews standards proposed by the IETF

Regulation of cyberspace
 Cyberspace spans worldwide, but it has no formal framework. The lack of formal framework
makes cyberspace nobody's domain
 No single individual, entity, or government owns or controls cyberspace.
 Regulation in cyberspace is an emerging challenge
 The default in cyberspace is anonymity. Anonymity encourages and enhances the exercise
of freedom. A child too shy to express himself in physical space can feign to be somebody
else in virtual space, and express himself freely.
 Crimes of global repercussion are also committed with the use of the internet. Trafficking of
persons, child pornography, kidnapping for ransom, and terrorism are perpetrated with the
use of cyberspace. Freedom thus in cyberspace should not be exercised without the
concomitant responsibility of its users.
 Practical Problems In Extending The Traditional Laws To Cyberspace
1. Multiple Jurisdictions-Because of anonymity of the Internet user, absence of
geographical boundaries in the cyberspace, and the cross border effect of Internet
transactions, all legal systems face legal uncertainty.

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2. Problem of Policing-The lack of technical knowledge, non-co-operation among

different police organization etc., make the problem too difficult to be solved.
3. Expensive Process-Training of law enforcement officers to solve the issue of
cybercrime is very expensive.
4. Obtaining Digital Evidence- Another instance where the policing of cybercrime
becomes difficult is with regard to obtaining the digital evidence.
Concept of cyber security
 cybersecurity is the practice of protecting computer systems, networks, and data from theft,
damage, or unauthorized access.
 It encompasses a wide range of technologies, processes, and practices designed to
safeguard digital information and ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
data.
1. Confidentiality: This principle focuses on ensuring that sensitive information is only
accessible to authorized individuals or systems. It involves encryption, access controls,
and data classification to prevent unauthorized access or disclosure.
2. Integrity: Integrity in cybersecurity means that data and systems are accurate and
trustworthy. Any unauthorized modification or tampering with data or systems should
be detected and prevented. Techniques like checksums and digital signatures are used
to maintain data integrity.
3. 3. Availability: Availability ensures that systems and data are accessible when
needed. Cyberattacks can disrupt services or make them unavailable, so cybersecurity
measures aim to prevent or mitigate such disruptions through redundancy, load
balancing, and disaster recovery planning.

4. Authentication: Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of users,

devices, or systems trying to access resources. This can be achieved through
passwords, biometrics, two-factor authentication (2FA), and multi-factor
authentication (MFA).

Cyber Attacks
 A cyber-attack is an exploitation of computer systems and networks. It uses malicious code
to alter computer code, logic or data and lead to cybercrimes, such as information and
identity theft.

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 Cyber-attacks can be classified into the following categories:

1. Web-based attacks
2. System-based attacks
Web-based attacks
 These are the attacks which occur on a website or web applications. Some of the important
web-based attacks are as follows-
I.Injection attacks :It is the attack in which some data will be injected into a web
application to manipulate the application and fetch the required information.
II.Session Hijacking :It is a security attack on a user session over a protected network. Web
applications create cookies to store the state and user sessions. By stealing the cookies,
an attacker can have access to all of the user data.
III.Phishing: Phishing is a type of attack which attempts to steal sensitive information like
user login credentials and credit card number. It occurs when an attacker is masquerading
as a trustworthy entity in electronic communication.
IV.Denial of Service:It is an attack which meant to make a server or network resource
unavailable to the users. It accomplishes this by flooding the target with traffic or sending
it information that triggers a crash.
System-based attacks
 These are the attacks which are intended to compromise a computer or a computer
network. Some of the important system-based attacks are as follows-
I. Virus :It is a type of malicious software program that spread throughout the computer files
without the knowledge of a user. It is a self-replicating malicious computer program that
replicates by inserting copies of itself into other computer programs when executed. It can
also execute instructions that cause harm to the system.
II. Worm :It is a type of malware whose primary function is to replicate itself to spread to
uninfected computers. It works same as the computer virus. Worms often originate from
email attachments that appear to be from trusted senders.
III. Trojan horse : it is a malicious program that occurs unexpected changes to computer setting
and unusual activity, even when the computer should be idle. It misleads the user of its true
intent. It appears to be a normal application but when opened/executed some malicious
code will run in the background.

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Cyber Threat
• A Cyber threat is any malicious act that attempts to gain access to a computer network
without authorization or permission from the owners.
• It refers to the wide range of malicious activities that can damage or disrupt a computer
system, a network or the information it contain.

Cyber Threat Cyber Attack

A Threat by definition is a condition /

An Attack by definition is an intended action to
circumstance which can cause damage to the
cause damage to system/asset.
system/asset.

Threats can be intentional like human negligence The attack is a deliberate action. An attacker has
or unintentional like natural disasters. a motive and plan the attack accordingly.

A Threat may or may not malicious. An Attack is always malicious.

Chance to damage or information alteration The chance to damage or information

varies from low to very high. alternation is very high.

Issues and challenges of cyber security

 Cybersecurity faces numerous issues and challenges due to the ever-evolving nature of
technology and the increasing sophistication of cyber threats.
 Some of the key issues and challenges in cybersecurity include:
1. Cyber Attacks: The constant threat of cyberattacks from various actors, including hackers,
cybercriminals, nation-states, and hacktivists, is a significant challenge. These attacks can
take various forms, such as malware, ransomware, phishing, and distributed denial of
service (DDoS) attacks.
2. Data Breaches: Data breaches can have severe consequences for organizations and
individuals. The theft or exposure of sensitive data, such as personal information, financial
records, or intellectual property, can lead to financial losses, reputational damage, and
legal liabilities.
3. Security Vulnerabilities: Software and hardware vulnerabilities are exploited by attackers
to gain unauthorized access or control over systems. Identifying and patching these
vulnerabilities in a timely manner is a constant challenge.

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4. Insider Threats: Insider threats, where individuals within an organization misuse their
access and privileges, can be particularly challenging to detect and prevent. This includes
employees, contractors, or partners who intentionally or unintentionally compromise
security.
5. Lack of Cybersecurity Awareness: Many individuals and employees lack awareness of
cybersecurity best practices, making them susceptible to social engineering attacks and
other cyber threats.
6. Resource Constraints: Smaller organizations and even some larger ones may lack the
resources and expertise needed to implement robust cybersecurity measures. This can
leave them vulnerable to attacks.
7. Ransomware: Ransomware attacks have surged in recent years, with cybercriminals
encrypting data and demanding a ransom for decryption keys. These attacks can disrupt
critical operations and result in significant financial losses.

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