PDF Nervous System

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Microscopic nerve cells collected into macroscopic bundles called nerves, carry
electrical messages all over the body. External stimuli, as well as internal chemicals
such as acetylcholine, activate the cell membranes of nerve cells in order to release
electrical energy within the cells. This energy, when released and passed through the
length of the nerve cell, is called the nervous impulse.
External receptors (sense organs) as well as internal receptors in muscles and blood
vessels receive impulses and transmit them to the complex network of nerve cells in
the brain and spinal cord. Within this central part of the nervous system, impulses
are recognized, interpreted, and finally relayed to other nerve cells that extend out
to all parts of the body to take action
The nervous system is classified into two major divisions: the central nervous system
(CNS) and the peripheral nervous system.
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of
spinal nerves
peripheral nervous system

The cranial nerves carry impulses between the brain and the head and neck. The one
exception is the 10th cranial nerve, called the vagus nerve. It carries messages to and
from the chest and abdomen, as well as the head and neck regions.
The spinal nerves carry messages between the spinal cord and the chest, abdomen,
and extremities.
CRANIAL NERVES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A nerve is sensory when it carries messages toward the brain from sense organs and
motor when it carries messages from the brain to muscles and internal organs.
Mixed nerves carry both sensory and motor fibers.
Autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system is a part of the peripheral nervous system. In
addition to the spinal and cranial nerves (whose functions are mainly voluntary and
involved with sensations of smell, taste, sight, hearing, and muscle movements), the
peripheral nervous system consists of a large group of nerves that function
involuntarily or automatically, without conscious control. These peripheral nerves
are those of the autonomic nervous system. This system of nerve fibers carries
impulses from the central nervous system to the glands, heart, blood vessels, and
the involuntary muscles found in the walls of tubes like the intestines and hollow
organs like the stomach and urinary bladder. These nerves are called efferent, since
they carry (- ferent) impulses away from (ef-) the central nervous system.
Some of the autonomic nerves are called sympathetic nerves and others are called
parasympathetic nerves. The sympathetic nerves stimulate the body in times of
stress and crisis; that is, they increase heart rate and forcefulness, dilate (relax)
airways so more oxygen can enter, increase blood pressure, stimulate the adrenal
glands to secrete epinephrine (adrenaline), and inhibit intestinal contractions so that
digestion is slower. The parasympathetic nerves normally act as a balance for the
sympathetic nerves. Parasympathetic nerves slow down heart rate, contract the
pupils of the eye, lower blood pressure, stimulate peristalsis to clear the rectum and
increase the quantity of secretions like saliva.
A plexus is a large network of nerves in the peripheral nervous system. The

cervical, brachial (branchi/o means arm), lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal plexuses are
examples
GANGLIA
Small collections of nerve cell bodies outside the brain and spinal cord are called
ganglia (singular: ganglion).
Neurons
A neuron is an individual nerve cell, a microscopic structure. Impulses are passed
along the parts of a nerve cell in a definite manner and direction.
DENDRITES-Receptive branches of neuron

AXON-Extending from the cell body is the axon, which carries the impulse away from
the cell body
MYELIN SHEATH
WHITE MATTER-areas in brain & spinal cord have neurons with myelin sheath
GREY MATTER-areas in brain & spinal cord do not have neurons with myelin sheath
A myelinated nerve fiber conducts impulses more rapidly than an unmyelinated fiber
of the same size because the electrical impulse "jumps" from node (space) to node in
the myelin sheath instead of traveling continuously along the fiber.
NEUROTRNSMITTERS
ACETYLCHOLINE
ADRENALINE
DOPAMINE
SEROTONIN
afferent (sensory) nerves

Peripheral nerves that carry impulses to the brain and spinal cord from stimulus
receptors like the skin, eye, ear and nose are called afferent (sensory) nerves
efferent/motor nerves
Those that carry impulses from the CNS to organs that produce responses, for
example, muscles and glands, are called efferent (motor) nerves.
NEUROGLIAL CELLS
OLIGODENDROCYTES-FORM MYELIN SHEATH
EPENDYMAL CELLS-LINES MEMBRANES WITHIN BRAIN & SPINAL CORD
Neuroglial cells,particularily astrocytes forms blood -brain barrier
SCHWANN cells also functions to produce myelin sheath
BRAIN
Divisions of the Brain

I. Cerebrum
II. Cerebellum
Ill. Diencephalon
A. Hypothalamus
B. Thalamus
IV. Brain stem
A. Medulla oblongata
B. Pons
C. Midbrain
The largest part of the brain is the cerebrum.

The outer nervous tissue of the cerebrum, known as the cerebral cortex, is arranged
in folds to form elevated portions known as convolutions (also called gyri) and
depressions or grooves known as fissures (also called sulci).
The cerebral hemispheres are the paired halves of the cerebrum. Each hemisphere is
subdivided into four major lobes names for the cranial (skull) bones that overlie
them.
The Cerebrum has many functions. All though, judgment, memory, association, and
discrimination take place within it.
In addition, sensory impulses are received through afferent cranial nerves, and when
registered in the cortex, they are basis for perception. Efferent cranial nerves carry
motor impulses from the cerebrum to muscles and glands, and these produce
movement and activity.
CSF FUNCTIONS
Supports & protects brain & spinal cord
acts as cushion & shock absorber b/w brain & spinal cord
supplies nutrients & O2 to brain
maintains intra cranial pressure
RELAY CENTER-THALAMUS
THERMOREGULATORY CENTER-HYPOTHALAMUS
CEREBELLUM
coordination of voluntary movements
maintain balance
posture
muscular tone
BRAIN STEM
Brainstem is the bottom part of your brain. It looks like a stalk that connects the rest
of your brain to your spinal cord. Your brainstem sends signals from your brain to the
rest of your body. It controls many subconscious body functions, like breathing and
maintaining your heart rate.
PARTS - MID BRAIN ,PONS ,MEDULLA OBLANGATA

Midbrain-helps in processing visual & auditary signals
The pons is a part of the brain that literally means bridge. It contains nerve fiber
tracts that connect the cerebellum and cerebrum with the rest of the brain.
Medulla oblongata contains important vital centers that regulate internal activities
of the body. These are:
1. Respiratory center, which controls muscles of respiration in response to chemicals
or other stimuli;
2. Cardiac center, which slows the heart rate when the heart is beating too rapidly;
and
3. Vasomotor center, which affects (constricts or dilates) the muscles in the walls of
blood vessels, thus influencing blood pressure.
functions
Cerebrum
Thinking, reasoning, movements, memory,sensations.
Thalamus
Relay station for body sensations: pain
Hypothalamus
Body temperature, sleep, appetite, emotions, control of the pituitary gland
Cerebellum
Coordination of voluntary movements
Pons
Connection of nerve fiber tracts
Medulla oblongata
Nerve fibers cross over, left to right and right to left: contains centers to regulate
heart, blood vessels, and respiratory system
The spinal cord

is a column of nervous tissue extending from the medulla oblongata to the second
lumbar vertebra within the vertebral column.
It ends as the cauda equina (horse's tail), a fan of nerve fibers found below the
second lumbar vertebra of the spinal column
It carries all the nerves that affect the limbs and lower part of the body, and it is the
pathway for impulses going to and from the brain.
Pathological Conditions
Neurological diseases may be classified in the following categories disorders:
Congenital
Neoplastic
Degenerative, Movement, and Seizure
Traumatic
Infectious
Vascular
Hydrocephalus
Abnormal accumulation of fluid (CSF) in the brain
Spina bifida
Congenital defect in the spinal column due to imperfect union of vertebral parts.
Alzheimer disease (AD)

Brain disorder marked by deterioration of mental capacity (dementia) beginning in
middle age.
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

A progressive disorder characterized by degeneration of motor neurons in the spinal
cord and brain stem.
Epilepsy
A chronic brain disorder characterized by recurrent seizure activity
Tonic-clonic seizures (grand mal seizures) -are characterized by a sudden loss of

consciousness, falling down, and then tonic contractions (stiffening of muscles)
followed by clonic contractions (twitching and jerking movements the limbs).
Absence seizures (petit mal seizures) are a minor form of seizure consisting of
momentary clouding of consciousness and loss of contact with the environment
AURA-preceding symptoms
Huntington disease
A hereditary nervous disorder due to degenerative changes in the cerebrum and
involving bizarre, abrupt, involuntary, dance-like movements.
Multiple sclerosis (MS)

Destruction of the myelin sheath on neurons in the CNS and its replacement by
plaques of sclerotic (hard) tissue.
Myasthenia gravis
A neuromuscular disorder characterized by relapsing weakness (-asthenia) of skeletal
muscles (attached to bones).
Palsy
Paralysis (partial or complete loss of motor function).
Cerebral palsy is partial paralysis and lack of muscular coordination caused by
damage to the cerebrum during gestation or in the perinatal period.
Bell palsy involves unilateral facial paralysis, which is due to a disorder of the facial
nerve.. Etiology is unknown, but complete recover is possible.
Parkinson disease
Degeneration of nerves in the brain, occurring in later life and leading to tremors,
weakness of muscles, and slowness of movement.
DOPAMINE DEFICIENCY-cause
Tourette syndrome
Neurological disorder marked by involuntary,spasmodic, twitching
movements;uncontrollable vocal sounds; and inappropriate words.
Meningitis-Inflammation of the meninges
Shingles-Viral disease affecting peripheral nerves

Blisters and pain spread in a band-like pattern over the skin, following the peripheral
nerves that are affected. Shingles is caused by a herpes virus (herpes zoster), the
same virus that causes chickenpox. Reactivation of the chickenpox virus (herpes
varicella-zoster), which remained in the body after the person had chickenpox
causes shingles.
Brain tumors
Abnormal growths of brain tissue and meninges.
Meningiomas are usually benign and surrounded by a capsule, but they may cause
compression and distortion of the brain
Cerebral concussion
Temporary brain dysfunction (brief loss of consciousness) after injury, usually
clearing within 24 hours.
Cerebral contusion
Bruising of brain tissue as a result of direct trauma to the head; neurological deficits
persist longer than 24 hours.
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA)

Disruption in the normal blood supply to the brain.
This condition, also known as stroke or cerebral infarction, is the result of a localized
area of ischemia (and ultimately infarction or necrosis) in the brain.
There are three types of strokes-thrombotic,embolic,hemmorhagic
1. Thrombotic blood clot (thrombus) in the arteries leading to the brain, resulting in
occlusion (blocking) of the vessel. Atherosclerosis leads to this common type of
stroke as blood vessels become blocked over time. Before total occlusion occurs, a
patient may experience symptoms that point to the gradual occlusion of blood
vessels. These short episodes of neurological dysfunction are known as TIAS
(transient ischemic attacks).
2. Embolic an embolus (a clot that breaks off from an area of the body) travels to the
cerebral arteries and occludes a small vessel. This type of stroke occurs very
suddenly.
3. Hemorrhagic - bursting forth of blood from a cerebral artery. This type of stroke is
often fatal and results from advancing age, atherosclerosis, or high blood pressure all
of which result in degeneration of cerebral blood vessels. If the hemorrhage is small,
the blood is reabsorbed and the patient can make a good recovery with only slight
disability. In a younger patient, cerebral hemorrhage is usually due to mechanical
injury associated with skull fracture or bursting of an arterial aneurysm (weakness in
the vessel wall that balloons and eventually bursts).

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NERVOUS SYSTEM

peripheral nervous system

CRANIAL NERVES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A plexus is a large network of nerves in the peripheral nervous system. The

DENDRITES-Receptive branches of neuron

afferent (sensory) nerves

Divisions of the Brain

The largest part of the brain is the cerebrum.

PARTS - MID BRAIN ,PONS ,MEDULLA OBLANGATA

The spinal cord

Alzheimer disease (AD)

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

Tonic-clonic seizures (grand mal seizures) -are characterized by a sudden loss of

Multiple sclerosis (MS)

Meningitis-Inflammation of the meninges

Shingles-Viral disease affecting peripheral nerves

Cerebrovascular accident (CVA)

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