Section 11.

2: Series

1 / 37
What do we mean when we express a number as an infinite decimal?

There are some situations in which we implicitly use infinite sums. For
instance, in decimal notation, the value of π is

π = 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288 · · ·

The convention behind our decimal notation is that any number can be

written as an infinite sum. Here it means that

1 4 1 5 9 2
π =3+ + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + ···
10 10 10 10 10 10

We can’t literally add an infinite number of terms, but the more terms
we add, the closer we get to the actual value of π.
2 / 37
Infinite Series

∞
P
In general, if we try to add the terms of an infinite sequence an , we
n=1
get an expression of the form

a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an + · · ·

which is called an infinite series (or just a series) and is denoted, for
short, by the symbol
X∞ X
an or an
n=1

Example:
∞ ∞ ∞
X 3n + 5 X (−1)n 3n X sin(πn)
, , .
n+8 n n2
n=1 n=1 n=1

3 / 37
Does it make sense to talk about the sum of infinitely many terms?
Would be possible to find a finite sum for the series
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + + + · · · + n + · · ·?
2 4 8 16 32 64 2

The table shows that these partial sums become closer and closer to 1.
∞
X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
n
= + + + + + + · · · + n + · · · = 1.
2 2 4 8 16 32 64 2
n=1
4 / 37
 P
How to determine whether or not a general series an has a sum?
We consider the partial sums

s1 = a1
s2 = a1 + a2
s3 = a1 + a2 + a3
s4 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4
and, in general these partial sums {sn } form a new sequence ,
n
X
sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an = ai
i=1

which may or may not have a limit. If lim sn = s exists (as a finite
n→∞ P
number), then we call it the sum of the infinite series an , that is,
∞
X
an = lim sn = s
n→∞
n=1

5 / 37
Definition
∞
an = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · , let sn denote its nth partial
P
Given a series
n=1
sum:
n
X
sn = ai = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an
i=1

If the sequence {sn } is convergent and lim sn = s exists as a real

n→∞
∞
P
number, then the series an is called convergent and we write
n=1

∞
X
a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an + · · · = s or an = s.
n=1

The number s is called the sum of the series.

If the sequence {sn } is divergent, then the series is called divergent.

6 / 37
Thus the sum of a series is the limit of the sequence of partial sums. So
P∞
when we write an = s. Notice that
n=1 ∞ n
X X
an = lim ai
n→∞
n=1 i=1

Consider the partial sums

sn = a1 + a2 + · · · + · · · + an−1 + an

and
sn−1 = a1 + a2 + · · · + an−1 ,
we get
sn − sn−1 a
= (1 +Z2 + ··· + 
aZ  + an ) − (
an−1
 a
1 +Z2 + ··· + 
aZ an−1
)


= an
∞
P
Thus, given the partial sum sn the general an term of an is
n=1

an = sn − sn−1 for n > 1

7 / 37
Example
∞
Suppose the nth partial sum of a series
P
an is given by
n=1
3n
sn =
5n + 4
(a) Find the general term an of the series.
∞
P
(b) Determine whether the series an is convergent or
n=1
divergent. If it is convergent, find its sum.

Solution.

8 / 37
Example
∞
Suppose the nth partial sum of a series
P
an is given by
n=1
3n
sn =
5n + 4
(a) Find the general term an of the series.
∞
P
(b) Determine whether the series an is convergent or
n=1
divergent. If it is convergent, find its sum.
3·1 1 1
Solution. (a) Since s1 = 5·1+4 = 3 and s1 = a1 , we get a1 = 3 and
3n 3(n − 1) 12
an = sn − sn−1 = − = , n>1
5n + 4 5(n − 1) + 4 (5n + 4)(5n − 1)

3n 3 3
(b) Since lim sn = lim = lim 0 = (finite), then the
n→∞ n→∞ 5n + 4 n→∞ 5
5 + n4

∞
P ∞
P 3


series an is convergent and an = .
n=1 n=1 5 9 / 37
What is the difference between a sequence and a series?
Series
Sequence 1 If we add the terms of an , we get
1 A sequence is just a list of a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an + · · ·
numbers written in a definite ∞
or
X
order, usually given by a an
formula. For example, n=1

n1 1 1 which is called a series. For example,

1 o
∞ 1
, , ,..., n,... P
.
2 4 8 2 n
n=1 2
or
1 2 By definition, a series is convergent if
an = lim sn = s exists (finite) where sn is
2n n→∞
a partial sum and
2 By definition, a sequence is
convergent if lim an exists a1 + a2 + · · · + an + · · · = s
n→∞
∞
(as a finite number L) and or
X
an = s,
lim an = L n=1
n→∞
where the number s is the sum of the
series. 10 / 37
Geometric Series

11 / 37
12 / 37
The geometric series
∞
X
arn−1 = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + · · ·
n=1

is convergent if |r| < 1 and its sum is

∞
X a
a rn−1 = , |r| < 1,
1−r
n=1

where a is the first term of the series.

If |r| ≥ 1 the geometric series is divergent.

13 / 37
Example
The geometric series
9 27 81
3+ + + + ···
5 25 125
3
has ratio of r = and first term a = 3. So, note that
5
9 27 81 31 32 33 34
3+ + + + · · · = 1−1 + 2−1 + 3−1 + 4−1 + · · ·
5 25 125 5 5 5 5
3
Because |r| = < 1, the series
5
∞ ∞  n−1
X 3n X 3
= 3
5n−1 5
n=1 n=1

converges and its sum is ∞  n−1

a 3 15 X 3 15
s= = = , that is, 3 = .
1−r 3 2 5 2
1− n=1
5 14 / 37
Example
The geometric series
∞ ∞ ∞  n
X 3 X 1 X 1
n
= 3 n = 3
2 2 2
n=1 n=1 n=1
 1
1 1 3
with ratio of r = and first term a = 3 = .
1 2 2 2
Because |r| = < 1, the series
2 ∞
X 3
2n
n=1

converges and its sum is

3
a 2
s= = = 6.
1−r 1
1−
2
∞
that is, X 3
=6.
2n
n=1
15 / 37
Example
The geometric series
∞ ∞
X πn X 1  π n
=
en+1 e e
n=0 n=0

π 1  π 0 1
with ratio of r = and first term a = = .
e e e e
π
Because |r| = > 1, the series
e
∞
X πn
en+1
n=0

diverges.

16 / 37
Example
Use a geometric series to write
0.08 = 0.080808 · · ·

as a ratio of two integers.

Solution:
0.08 = 0.080808 · · ·  + · ·· n
= 0.08 + 0.0008 + 0.000008 + 0.00000008
8 8 8 8 ∞
P 1
= 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + ··· = 8 2
10 10 10 10 n=1 10

8 1
We have a geometric series with first term a = 2
and r = .
10 102
Therefore
8
a 10 2 8
0.08 = 0.080808 · · · = = = .
1−r 1 99
1− 2
10
Note: Try by dividing 8 by 99 on calculator to see that it produces 0.08.
17 / 37
Example
Find the values of x for which ∞
the series
X
(−3)n xn
n=1

converges. Find the sum of the series for those values of x.

Solution:

18 / 37
Example
Find the values of x for which ∞
the series
X
(−3)n xn
n=1

converges. Find the sum of the series for those values of x.

Solution: Note that
∞
X ∞
X
(−3)n xn = (−3x)n
n=1 n=1

is a geometric series with ratio r = −3x and first term a = −3x.

So, the series converges when |r| < 1, that is,
1 1 1
|r| < 1 ⇔ | − 3x| < 1 ⇔ |x| < ⇔ − < x < .
3 3 3
a −3x
In this case, the sum of the series is s = = =
∞ 1−r 1 − (−3x)
3x X 3x
− . Thus, (−3)n xn = − .
1 + 3x 1 + 3x 19 / 37
n=1
Example
Find the values of x for which the series
∞
X (x − 2)n
.
n=0
3n

converges. Find the sum of the series for those values of x.

Solution:

20 / 37
Example
Find the values of x for which the series
∞
X (x − 2)n
.
n=0
3n

converges. Find the sum of the series for those values of x.

Solution: Note that
∞ ∞  n
X (x − 2)n X x−2
=
n=0
3n n=0
3

x−2
0 series with common ratio r = 3 and first term is given by
is a geometric
x−2
a= = 1. So, the series converges when |r| < 1, that is,
3
x−2
|r| < 1 ⇔ < 1 ⇔ |x − 2| < 3 ⇔ −3 < x − 2 < 3 ⇔ −1 < x < 5.
3

In this case, for x in (−1, 5) the sum of the series is

∞
a 1 3 X (x − 2)n 3
s= = = . Thus, = .
1−r x − 2 5−x 3 n 5−x
1− n=0
21 / 37
Telescoping Series
∞  
X 1 1
−
n n+1
n=1

Note that the partial sum is

n          
1 1 1
−
12
+
12
− A13A + A13A −
14
+ · · · + An1A − 1
P
sn = i − i+1 = 1 n+1
i=1
1
=1−
n+1
and so  
1
lim sn = lim 1 − = 1.
n→∞ n→∞ n+1
∞  
P 1 1
Therefore, the series n − n+1 is convergent and
n=1

∞  
X 1 1
− =1.
n n+1
n=1
22 / 37
Example
Show that the series
∞
X 1
n(n + 1)
n=1

converges and find its sum.

Solution:

23 / 37
Example
Show that the series
∞
X 1
n(n + 1)
n=1

converges and find its sum.

Solution: We can simplify this expression using the partial fraction

decomposition (see Section 7.4)

1 A B A(n + 1) + Bn (A + B)n + A
= + = =
n(n + 1) n n+1 n(n + 1) n(n + 1)

which implies
A+B =0 and A=1
and, we get A = 1 and B = −1.

24 / 37
Therefore,
∞ ∞  
X 1 X 1 1
= −
n(n + 1) n n+1
n=1 n=1

n          
1 1 1
−
12
+
12
− A13A + A13A −
14
+ · · · + An1A − 1
P
sn = i − i+1 = 1 n+1
i=1
1
=1−
n+1
and so  
1
lim sn = lim 1− = 1.
n→∞ n→∞ n+1
∞  
P 1 1
Therefore the series n − n+1 is convergent and
n=1

∞  
X 1 1
− = 1.
n n+1
n=1

25 / 37
Example
Show that the series
∞
X 4
n=1
(n + 1)(n + 2)
converges and find its sum.

Solution.

26 / 37
Example
Show that the series
∞
X 4
n=1
(n + 1)(n + 2)
converges and find its sum.

Solution. We can simplify this expression using the partial fraction decompo-
sition
4 A B (A + B)n + 2A + B
= + =
(n + 1)(n + 2) n+1 n+2 (n + 1)(n + 2)

which implies
A+B =0 and 2A + B = 4
and, we get A = 4 and B = −4. Using partial sums, we obtain the telescoping
series
∞ ∞  
X 4 X 4 4
= − ,
n=1
(n + 1)(n + 2) n=1 n + 1 n + 2

27 / 37
 n
 
4 4 
4 4 4

4
   
Z4 − 4
P
− − −Z
sn = =
 +  Z + · · · + n+1 .
1+1

1+2 2+1 2+2 n+2
i=1 i+1 i+2 Z

4
=2−
n+2
Therefore the series is convergent and the sum is
∞    
X 4 4 4
− = lim sn = lim 2 − = 2 − 0 = 2.
n+1 n+2 n→∞ n→∞ n+2
n=1

28 / 37
Test for Divergence

The harmonic series

∞
X 1
n
n=1

is divergent.

29 / 37
Theorem
∞
P
If the series an is convergent, then lim an = 0.
n=1 n→∞

Note: The converse of this theorem P is not true in general. If

lim an = 0, we can’t conclude that an is convergent.
n→∞
P1
Observe that the harmonic series we have
n
1
lim an = lim =0
n→∞ n→∞ n

P1
but the series is divergent.
n

30 / 37
Test for Divergence
∞
P
If lim an does not exist or if lim an 6= 0, then the series an is
n→∞ n→∞ n=1
divergent.

31 / 37
Example
Determine whether the series
∞
X 4n − 5
9n + 1
n=1

is convergent or divergent.

Solution:

32 / 37
Example
Determine whether the series
∞
X 4n − 5
9n + 1
n=1

is convergent or divergent.

Solution: Since
5
4n − 5 4− 4
lim an = lim = lim n = 6= 0
n→∞ n→∞ 9n + 1 n→∞ 1 9
9+
n
then the series
∞
X 4n − 5
9n + 1
n=1

diverges by the Test for Divergence.

33 / 37
Example
Determine whether the series
∞
5n2 + 1
X  
ln
2n2 + 3
n=1

is convergent or divergent.

Solution:

34 / 37
Example
Determine whether the series
∞
5n2 + 1
X  
ln
2n2 + 3
n=1

is convergent or divergent.

Solution: Since
5n2 + 1 5n2 + 1
   
lim an = lim ln = ln lim
n→∞ n→∞ 2n2 + 3 2
n→∞ 2n + 3
1
5+ 2  
5
= ln  lim
 n 
= ln 6= 0
n→∞ 3 
2
2+ 2
n
then the series ∞  2 
X 5n + 1
ln
2n2 + 3
n=1

diverges by the Test for Divergence.

35 / 37
Properties of Convergent Series

Theorem
P P P
If an and bn are convergent
P series, then
P so are the series c an
(where c is a constant), (an + bn ), and (an − bn ), and
∞
P P∞
(i) can = c an
n=1 n=1
P∞ ∞
P ∞
P
(ii) (an + bn ) = an + bn
n=1 n=1 n=1
P∞ P∞ P∞
(iii) (an − bn ) = an − bn
n=1 n=1 n=1

36 / 37
For example,
∞ ∞  n ∞  n
X 1 + 4n X 1 X 4
= + ,
5n 5 5
n=1 n=1 n=1

where each series is a geometric series. So,

1
r = <1
5
and
4
r = < 1.
5

37 / 37