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General Chemistry

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General Chemistry

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SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY


COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025
Conversion Factors for Volume

1 MEASUREMENTS

MEASUREMENTS

QUANTITATIVE OBSERVATIONS
- called a measurement
- Number and a Unit (scale)
- Both parts must be present for the
measurement to be meaningful.
QUALITATIVE OBSERVATIONS BASIC TYPES OF QUANTITY
- does not involve a NUMBER 1. FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES
- quantities measured by DIRECT
STANDARD SYSTEMS OF UNITS METHOD
● ENGLISH SYSTEM
2. DERIVED QUANTITIES
● METRIC SYSTEM
- Quantities that emanate or are a
result of the combination of
SI UNITS
fundamental quantities after a set
of operations.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
1. NON-ZERO INTEGERS
- lahat ng hindi zero, counted as 1
SF YON
- 1234 - 4 SF

2. ZEROS
A. LEADING ZEROS
PREFIXES IN SI SYSTEM - lahat ng zero before a
non-zero, ay HINDI
COUNTED
- 0.0000001 - 1 SF

B. CAPTIVE ZEROS
- lahat ng zero between
non-zeros, ay MAY
BILANG SA SF
- 1.605009402 - 10 SF

C. TRAILING ZEROS
- lahat ng zeros na after ng non-zero
BASTA MAY DECIMAL POINT, ay
VOLUME COUNTED
- physical quantity that is very important in - 1000000000 - 1 SF
chemistry. - 0.0000100000 - 6 SF
- derived from length
3. EXACT NUMBERS
- determined by counting
instead of measuring
v
SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025

EXPONENTIAL NOTATION
Advantages
- Fewer zeros are needed to write a very large COMMON CONVERSION FACTORS
or very small number. MUST REMEMBER!
- The number of significant figures can be
easily indicated
N x 10n

Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical


Operations
Multiplication/Division - least number of SF
Addition/Subtraction - least number of decimal
places

Note: Solve muna, ‘wag kang mag-apply ng rules


within calculations. Base mo sa given ang least
number ng significant figures or decimal places.
‘Wag din mag-round off ng numbers in-between
calculations.

Precision and Accuracy


Accuracy - agreement of a particular value with the
true value.
Precision - refers to the degree of agreement among
several measurements of the same quantity.

TYPES OF ERRORS
Random Error
- Means that a measurement has an equal
probability of being high or low
Systematic Error
- This type of error occurs in the same TEMPERATURE
direction each time; it is either always high Fahrenheit
or always low. - The scale is now defined by setting the
freezing point of water at 32°F and the
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS boiling point of water at 212°F.
- necessary to convert a given result from one Celcius
system of units to another. - The Celsius scale was developed in a similar
- madaling way lang s’ya para madali mong way, but with the freezing point of pure
makita kung paano nakukuha yung desired water set at 0°C and the boiling point of
number mo. water at 100°C.
v
SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025
MAGHIHIWALAY S’YA INTO 2 OR
MORE PRODUCTS
- usually require energy (heat, light,
or electricity) to take place.
- para malaman kung may H2O at
CO2 sa product, check always
kung IA BICARBONATES OR IIA
BICARBONATES BA SILA, this
simply means na magkakaroon
kayo ng tatlong products minsan.
(IF MY ADDTL. INFO PA KAYO, HEHE FEEL FREE TO ADD PLS,
BASED LANG DEN NAMAN SA PPT YAN NI SIR, THANK YOU)

2 CHEMICAL REACTION

CHEMICAL REACTION 3. DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS


- ito naman is napupunta yung
- process in which a substance (or kasamang element ng isang
substances) is changed into one or more compound dun sa solong
new substances ka-reaction n’ya
- kaso for example, mas mababa
Chemical Equation ang activitiy series, meaning di
s’ya pwedeng mag-undergo ng
- uses symbols to show what happens during displacement reactions.
a chemical reaction.
- Reactants are the starting materials in a
chemical reaction and the product is the
substance formed as a result of a chemical
reaction.
- PHYSICAL STATES - g (gas), l (liquid), s
(solid), aq (aqueous)
- SA PAGGAWA NG CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS, ALWAYS TAKE NOTE THE
CHARGE NG MGA ELEMENTS OR IONS
N’YO, SINCE IT WILL TELL KUNG ILANG
ATOM MOLECULES ANG MERON KAYO. 4. METATHESIS (DOUBLE-DISPLACEMENT
‘PAG MALI ANG EQUATION, BAKA REACTION)
MAMALI RIN KAYO SA PAG-BALANCE - magkapalitan naman ‘yung
dalawang compound to form new
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
compounds sa product side.
1. COMBINATION REACTIONS - same s’ya with decomposition,
- combination lang siya ng 2 or more basta carbonate ay nakipag-react
elements para maging compound. with acid, magkakaroon ng H2O,
- always take note na ISA LANG CO2, AT SALT
LAGI ANG PRODUCT WHICH IS
‘YUNG ISANG COMPOUND

2. DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS
- kabaligtaran lang s’ya ng
combination, FROM COMPOUND,
v
SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025

5. NEUTRALIZATION REACTION
- dito naman, ang product ay laging 3 STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATION
water at salt.
- H2O AT COMPOUND NA STEPS IN CALCULATING STOICHIOMETRY
NAPRODUCE NG TWO
OPPOSITE CHARGES (SALT)
STEP 1:
- Tignan at i-list mo ang given, kunin mo ang
mass ng mga nasa reactant side at mass ng
nasa product side (set aside muna ‘to dahil
mamaya mo pa gagamitin sa percent yield
yan since ‘yan ang ACTUAL YIELD mo)
STEP 2:
- determine ang nangyaring chemical
6. COMBUSTION REACTION reaction, then saka mo i-balance. Ang mga
- reaction ng elements at numbers na pinaglalalagay mo sa tabi ng
compounds kasama si oxygen. mga elements or compounds jan, will serve
BASTA 2 LANG SILA SA as the number of moles or mole ratio ng
REACTANT THEN ANG ISA IS bawat isa.
OXYGEN STEP 3:
- compute mo na ang mga molar mass, isulat
BALANCING EQUATION dahil gagamitin mo ‘yan sa pag-compute ng
LAGING TANDAAN! buong process.
1. Unahin mong tignan ‘yung may STEP 4:
pinakamalaking subscript na compound or - proceed na sa calculation, insert na lang ako
‘yung pinaka-complex, then saka mo s’ya picture kung paano ang dapat gawin (galing
i-compare sa may product side. na lang module HHAHAHA)
2. Check lagi ang polyatomic ions

- ang ginawa lang naman dito is ni-compare


ang first reactant sa product at second
reactant sa product
STEP 5:
- ang limiting reactant ay COMPOUND lang
sagot jan na may pinakamababang
number of grams nung pinag-compare ang
since sila ang next priority after the complex dalawa, for example, sa given sa manual ay
compound Cl2 ‘yung may pinakamababang result so
3. Then saka mo i-balance ‘yung ibang atoms, siya yung limiting reactant
t’as bilangin kung same ang numbers ng - ang excess reactant naman is makukuha
atoms nila reactant at product. ‘pag yung dalawang reactants na given
na yung pinag-cocompare. For exampl sa
MNEMONICS FOR DIATOMIC ELEMENTS manual, ‘yung CH4 at Cl2 na ang
IHNBOClF pinag-compare then nakuha ang excess
reactant na mass ni CH4 kase s’ya
I Have No Bright Or Clever Friends pinakamalaki (if that makes sense).
v
SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025

STEP 6:
- si excess mass is simply pag-minus mo ang ENERGY
mass ng reactant na may pinakamalaking - capacity to do work
number of grams sa may Step 4, at ‘yung - cannot be seen, touched, smelled, or
- weighed but all of its form are capable of
doing work
mass na nakuha mo sa Step 5 (excess
reactant) WORK
STEP 7: - Directed energy change results from a
- Theoretical yield is simply ‘yung mass na process
pinakamaliit kasama ang compound sa - of kinetic energy, thermal energy, chemical
product. For example sa module, ang mass energy, and potential energy. All forms of
na pinakamababa is 33.4g, then ang nasa energy can be transformed from one form to
product na acid is HCl, bale pagsamahin another.
lang: 33.4g of HCL
STEP 8: HEAT
- ang percent yield naman is, (ACTUAL - transfer of thermal energy between two
YIELD/THEORETICAL YIELD) x 100 bodies that are at different temperatures
- ‘yung mass na given for the product (nasa - Thermochemistry is the study of heat
tanong lang lagi yan) would be the change in chemical reactions
ACTUAL YIELD, then THEORETICAL
YIELD naman is ‘yung mass na nakuha mo SYSTEM AND SURROUNDINGS
na may pinakamababang value nung - SYSTEM - is the specific part of the
pinag-compare mo sa STEP 4 universe that interests us.
➔ Open System - exchange of mass
1. results and get feedback. Look for what and energy
needs revision and improvement. ➔ Closed System - transfer of energy
but not mass
2. IMPROVE: REDESIGN AS NEEDED - Share ➔ Isolated System - does not allow
results and continue to seek how your team the transfer of either mass or
could make the solution better. Iterate your energy
design to make the product the best it can - SURROUNDINGS - are the rest of the
be. universe outside the system

EXOTHERMIC PROCESS
4 ENERGY CHANGES OF CHEMICAL
- any process that gives off heat or energy
REACTIONS
ENDOTHERMIC PROCESS
HEAT CAPACITY AND CALORIMETRY - heat has to be supplied to the system by the
surroundings.
● LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
- in a chemical reaction, mass is CALORIMETRY- the measurement of heat changes
neither created nor destroyed CALORIMETER - closed container to measure heat
changes
● LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
- energy can neither be created nor SPECIFIC HEAT (s) - the amount of heat required to
destroyed; only converted from one raise the temperature of one gram of the substance by
form of energy to another one degree Celcius
- total quantity of energy in the
universe is assumed to be constant
- J/g·°C
- when one form of energy - Intensive property
disappears, some form of energy
(of equal magnitude) must HEAT CAPACITY (C) - the amount of heat required to
appear, and vice versa raise the temperature of a given quantity of the
substance by one degree Celcius.
v
SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025
- J/g·°C The heat changes for the process (qrxn) is equal to
the enthalpy change
- Extensive Property
No heat enters or leaves!
FORMULAS AND RELATIONSHIPS
𝐶 = 𝑚𝑠 ENTHALPY
Where: The reaction is considered as expansion when there
m = mass of the substance in grams is a net increase in the number of moles of a gas after
C = heat capacity the reaction and conversely, it is compression if
s = specific heat more gas molecules are consumed than are
produced.
FORMULAS FOR AMOUNT OF HEAT
The work is done on the surroundings for an
𝑞 = 𝑚𝑠∆𝑡 expansion process and it is done on the system for a
compression process. There is no work done if there
𝑞 = 𝐶∆𝑡 is no net change in the number of moles of gases
Where: from the reactants to products.
q = amount of heat that has been absorbed or
released
= (+) for endothermic and (-) for exothermic ∆𝐸 = 𝑞 + 𝑤
ms = mass x specific heat = C (heat capacity) = 𝑞𝑝 − 𝑃∆𝑉
Δt = change in temperature or Tfinal - Tiniitial
𝑞𝑝 = ∆𝐸 + 𝑃∆𝑉
Where the subscript “p” means the
CONSTANT-VOLUME BOMB CALORIMETER
constant-pressure condition
Heat of Combustion is usually measured by placing a
known compound mass in a steel container called a H = E + PV
constant-volume bomb calorimeter, which is filled where E is the internal energy of the system and P
with oxygen at about 30 atm of pressure. (pressure) and V (volume) of the system,
respectively.
The special design of the calorimeter enables us to
assume that no heat (or mass) is lost to the For any process, the change in enthalpy is given by
surroundings during the time it takes to make ΔH = ΔE + Δ(PV)
measurements
If the pressure is held constant, then
Therefore, we can call the bomb and he water in ΔH = ΔE + PΔV
which it is submerged an isolated system.
‘Pag ang reaction ay under constant-volume
Bomb Calorimeter Formula conditions, ang heat change ay ΔE. Pero kapag ang
reaction ay constant pressure lang, si heat change ay
qsystem = qcal + qrxn ΔH.
qsystem = 0
For an endothermic process (heat absorbed by the
qcal = CcalΔT system from the surroundings), ΔH is positive (that
qrxn = -qcal is, ΔH > 0). For an exothermic process (heat
released by the system to the surroundings), ΔH is
negative (that is, ΔH < 0).
Where qcal and qrxn are the heat changes for the
calorimeter and the reaction, respectively.
ENTHALPY - THERMOCHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Thermochemical equations show the enthalpy
CONSTANT-PRESSURE CALORIMETER
change as well as the mass relationships.
Constant-pressure calorimeter is used to determine
the heat changes for non-combustion reactions.
Also called Coffee Cup Calorimeter (styrofoam)
v
SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025

The sign of ΔS will be positive if there is an increase


SPONTANEITY in the number of microstates and negative if the
Thermodynamics deals with the interconversion of number of microstates decreases.
heat and other forms of energy.
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
A reaction that does occur under the given set of The First Law of Thermodynamics states that
conditions is called a spontaneous reaction. energy can be converted from one form to another,
but it cannot be created or destroyed. One measure
A spontaneous process is one that is continuous on of these changes is the amount of heat given off or
its own once started without energy input. A absorbed by a system during a constant-pressure
non-spontaneous process needs continuous energy process, which chemists define as a change in
input. enthalpy (ΔH).

A reaction will never spontaneously move away from The Second Law of Thermodynamics is defined as
equilibrium and will always move spontaneously the entropy of the universe increasing in a
towards equilibrium. spontaneous process and remaining unchanged in an
equilibrium process. A spontaneous reaction
The best indicator of spontaneity in a reaction is the increases the entropy of the universe
change of Entropy (S or ΔS).
G = H – TS
ENTROPY ΔG < 0 - spontaneous
Entropy (S) is described as a measure of how ΔG > 0 - non-spontaneous
spread out or dispersed the energy of a system is ΔG = 0 - equilibrium
among the different possible ways that a system can
contain energy.

In 1868 Boltzmann showed that the entropy of a


system is related to the natural log of the number of The Third Law of thermodynamics states that the
microstates (W): entropy of a perfect crystalline substance is zero at
the absolute zero of temperature.
S = klnW
where k is called the Boltzmann constant (1.38 x
10-23 J/K). Thus, the larger the W, the greater the
entropy of the system. 5 ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY

Fundamentally, the number of microstates is a


measure of the potential disorder of the system. Each ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY
molecule's energy arrangement in the whole
system at one instant is called a microstate. - “the energy which converts electrical
energy to chemical energy and vice
SOME PATTERNS EMERGE WHEN THESE versa.”
VALUES ARE COMPARED
● The entropies of gases are much larger than ELECTROCHEMISTRY - study of chemical
those of liquids, which are larger than those processes that cause electrons to move
of solids
● Entropies of large, complicated molecules electricity can be generated by the movements of
are greater than those of smaller, simpler electrons from one element to another in a reaction
molecules known as redox or oxidation-reduction reaction.
● Entropies of ionic solids are larger when the
bonds within them are weaker OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTION
● Entropy usually increases when a liquid or - involve the transfer of electrons from one
solid dissolves in a solvent. atom to another
● Entropy usually decreases when a gas - SPONTANEOUS REDOX REACTIONS are
dissolves in a liquid or solid. - generally exothermic
v
SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025
Rule 7: ang SUM ng O.N. sa NEUTRAL
COMPOUND = 0, sa POLYATOMIC ION = IONIC
CHARGE
LOSS OF ELECTRONS (OXIDATION)
INCREASE IN OXIDATION NUMBER KCl = 0 (neutral compound)
SA REACTANT MALAKI NUMBER NG ELECTRON Si K (potassium) ay may +1 na O.N. [Rule 2]
SA PRODUCT LUMIIT NUMBER NG ELECTRON Si Cl (chlorine) ay may -1 na O.N. [Rule 4]

GAIN OF ELECTRONS (REDUCTION) Rule 7: Neutral Compound ang KCl (meaning


INCREASE IN OXIDATION NUMBER walang net charge, or may charge na equal kay 0)
SA REACTANT MALIIT NUMBER NG ELECTRON
SA PRODUCT LUMAKI NUMBER NG ELECTRON NO2- (polyatomic ion)
Si Oxygen ay -2 [Rule 6.1]
Polyatomic Ion ‘yan, meaning equal kay ionic
PAANO MALAMAN ANG OXIDATION NUMBER? charge ang kanilang O.N. which is ‘yung -1 [Rule
7]
Rule 1: ‘pag mag-isa nag element, 0 LAGI ANG O.N.,
KAHIT DIATOMIC PA SIYA O.N. of Nitrogen + 2(-2) = -1
O.N. of Nitrogen +(- 4) = -1
Cl2 S6 P4 = 0 O.N. O.N. of Nitrogen = +3
Rule 2: LAHAT NG GROUP 1A: LAGING +1
Li Na K Rb Cs Fr = +1 O.N.
Rule 3: LAHAT NG GROUP 2A: LAGING +2
Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Ra = +2 O.N.
Rule 4: LAHAT NG HALOGENS AY -1, PERO ‘PAG
MAY OXYGEN NA KASAMA, +1 NA
Cl Br I At w/ Oxygen = +1
F Cl Br I At w/o Oxygen = -1

Rule 5: MONOATOMIC ION IS SAME LANG ANG


CHARGE PATI ANG O.N. HALF-LIFE REACTIONS
K+ = +1 ‘PAG OXIDATION, NASA PRODUCT SIDE ANG
ELECTRON
N3- = -3 ‘PAG NAMAN REDUCTION, NASA REACTANT
Mg2+ = + 2 SIDE ANG ELECTRON

Rule 6.1: ‘pag kasama ni HYDROGEN ay METAL


(-1); ‘pag kasama ni HYDROGEN ay NON-METAL GALVANIC AND ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS
(+1)
GALVANIC CELLS
HCl = +1 - The apparatus for producing electricity
through a spontaneous reaction is called a
FeH = -1 galvanic cell or voltaic cell, after the Italian
Rule 6.2: ang OXYGEN ay usually -2 kaso ‘pag
scientists Luigi Galvani and Alessandro
PEROXIDE (H2O2) na, magiging -1 na ang O.N.
Volta, who constructed early versions of the
NOTE: ‘PAG PEROXIDE LANG S’YA
device.
NAGIGING -1

Rule 6.3: ang FLOURINE ay -1 lagi.


v
SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025
The superscript ° denotes standard-state
conditions

E° is the standard reduction potential, or the


voltage associated with a reduction reaction at an
electrode when all solutes are 1 M and all gases are
at 1 atm.

Thus, the standard reduction potential of the


hydrogen electrode is defined as zero. The hydrogen
The cell operates on the principle that the oxidation electrode is called the standard hydrogen electrode
of Zn to Zn2+ and the reduction of Cu2+ to Cu can (SHE).
occur simultaneously in separate locations with the
transfer of electrons between them occurring through It is important to know the following points about
an external wire. the table in calculations:
● The E° values apply to the half-cell reactions
The zinc and copper bars are called electrodes. This as read in the forward (left to right) direction.
particular arrangement of electrodes (Zn and Cu) and
solutions (ZnSO4 and CuSO4) is called the Daniell ● The more positive E° is, the greater the
cell. tendency for the substance to be reduced.

AN OX, RED CAT ● The half-cell reactions are reversible.


Anode in a galvanic cell is the electrode at which Depending on the conditions, any electrode
oxidation occurs. can act either as an anode or as a cathode.
Cathode is the electrode at which reduction occurs.
● Under standard-state conditions, any
CELL VOLTAGE - the voltage across the electrodes species on the left of a given half-cell
of a galvanic cell. This is also called cell potential. reaction will react spontaneously with a
species that appears on the right of any
Another common term for cell voltage is the half-cell reaction located below it.
electromotive force or emf (E), which, despite its
name, is a measure of voltage, not force. ● Changing the stoichiometric coefficients
of a half-cell reaction does not affect the
The conventional notation for representing galvanic value of E° because electrode potentials are
cells is the cell diagram. The single vertical line intensive properties. This means that the
represents a phase boundary. value of E° is unaffected by the size of the
electrodes or the amount of solutions
present.

● Like ΔH, ΔG, and ΔS, the sign of E°


CELL POTENTIALS AND SPONTANEITY changes but its magnitude remains the
same when we reverse a reaction.
Ecell - a potential difference that is called the cell
potential (or EMF for electromotive force, although it
The measured emf (Ecell) is the maximum voltage
is not really a force)
the cell can achieve.
- Value depends upon the concentrations of
The negative sign indicates that the electrical work is
specific reactants and products as well as
done by the system (galvanic cell) on the
the temperature of the reaction.
surroundings.
- For standard cell potential, the temperature
We defined free energy as the energy available to
of the reaction is assumed to be 25˚
do work.
Celsius, the concentration of the reactants
Specifically, the change in free energy (ΔG)
and products is 1 M, and the reaction
represents the maximum amount of useful work that
occurs at 1 atm pressure. The standard cell
can be obtained in a reaction. For a spontaneous
potential is denoted as Ecell°.
reaction, ΔG is negative and Ecell is positive
v
SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025
0
● The symbol -1 e represents an electron in
or from an atomic orbital.
0
● pero ‘pag naman -1 β ay galing kay
nucleus/decay ng neutron.

1
0 n → 11p + -10β
To calculate the n-factor of a salt of such type, we
take one mole of the reactant and find the number ● Ang positron same mass ng electron, pero
of moles of the element whose oxidation state is +1 ang charge
changing. This is multiplied by the oxidation state of ● Ang α particle ay may 2 protons at 2
the element in the reactant, which gives us the total
neutrons. Atomic number na 2, mass
oxidation state of the element in the reactant.
number na 4
● Ang total mass number at total atomic
(as far as I can remember, ito lang ‘yung number ng
number ng reactant ay equal dapat kay
electrons na kasama sa reaction)
product.

72
36 n → 3468p + 24He
Note: check ang atomic number (nasa baba)
para malaman kung ano ang element

6 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY AND ENERGY

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
- study of reactions involving changes in
atomic nuclei.
- It all started with the discovery of natural
radioactivity by Antoine Becquerel and
grew with the works of Pierre and Marie ATTRACTIVE FORCES > REPULSIVE
Curie and many others. FORCES - NUCLEUS IS STABLE

ATTRACTIVE FORCES < REPULSIVE


NUCLEAR STABILITY
FORCES - UNSTABLE NUCLEUS
- lahat ng nuclei may neutron at proton
(RADIOACTIVE DECAY)
except for kay HYDROGEN
- Some nuclei are unstable (emit particles)
Coulomb’s law we know that like charges
and undergo radioactivity
repel and unlike charges attract one
- >83 atomic number = radioactive
another. Protons to repel one another
strongly.

NEUTRON-TO PROTON RATIO (n/p) - principle


factors that determine whether the nucleus is stable.

STABLE ATOMS - n/p close to 1


v
SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025
- heavier elements are synthesized from
lighter elements
n>p; n/p>1 more protons = more repulsive forces - laging may banggaan ng particles para
higher atomic numbers, a large number of mangyari ang reaction (need ren ng Kinetic
neutrons is needed Energy)
- mabilis na neutron ang babangga.
RULES FOR PREDICTING NUCLEAR STABILITY
● 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, 126 protons or neutrons are TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS - >92 ang atomic
generally more stable than nuclei are called number
magic numbers PARTICLE ACCELERATORS - made it possible ang
● stable noble gases (2, 10, 18, 36, 54, and 86 transuranium elements
electrons)
● nuclei with even numbers of both protons Neptunium (Z 5 93) was first prepared in 1940. Lahat
and neutrons are generally more stable than ng isotope n’ya ay radioactive.
those with odd.
● Isotopes >83 are radioactive NUCLEAR FISSION

X-54 is much more stable than - Nuclear chain reaction - a self-sustaining


sequence of nuclear fission reactions
Y-92, since mas close kay ratio - heavy nucleus na may 200 mass number,
then decay s’ya sa smaller nucleus.
ng 1. - U-235 first nuclear fission reaction;
lighter elements ay more stable. bombarded with slow neutrons (unlike kay
transmutation, hindi na need ng mabilis na
neutron)

NUCLEAR FUSION

- the combining of small nuclei para


gumawa ng larger ones pero <83 ang
atomic number. (MOSTLY SA LIGHTER
ELEMENTS LANG)
- occurs constantly in the sun
- very high temperature, they are often called
thermonuclear reactions
- need ng high temperature (100 million °C),
to overcome repulsive between the nuclei
kase pinipilit nila magsama ang stable na
protons.

In contrast to the fission process, nuclear fusion


looks like a very promising energy source, at least
“on paper.”

Advantages
● The fuels are cheap;
● The process produces little radioactive
waste.

NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATION
- the result of the bombardment of nuclei by
neutrons, protons, or other nuclei;
synthesize the new element na nagawa after
collision.
v
SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025
CHEMICAL CHANGE
● “Hydrogen gas burns in oxygen gas to form
water”
7 MATTER AND ENERGY

MATTER AND ENERGY TWO ADDITIONAL PROPERTIES

CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATTER ● EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES - how much


CHEMISTRY - is the study of matter and the matter is being considered.
changes it undergoes. - Mass, length, and volume.
MATTER - is anything that occupies space and has ● INTENSIVE PROPERTIES - not depend on
mass. how much matter is being considered.
- Color, odor, taste, density, and
SUBSTANCES - a form of matter that has a definite temperature (boiling point and
(constant) composition and distinct properties. melting point).

MIXTURES - A mixture is a combination of two or


more substances in which the substances retain their
distinct identities.
● HOMOGENOUS - uniform or same
throughout
● HETEROGENOUS - not uniform

- This can be created and separated by


physical means into pure components
without changing the identities of the
components.

ELEMENTS - a substance that cannot be separated


into simpler substances by chemical means.
- for convenience, chemists use symbols of
one or two letters to represent the elements.
The first letter is always capitalized but any
following letters are not.

COMPOUNDS - A compound is composed of atoms


of two or more elements chemically united in fixed
proportions. Compounds can be separated only by
chemical means into their pure components.

STATES OF MATTER
● Solid
● Liquid
● Gas

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF


MATTER
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - can be measured and
observed without changing the composition or
identity of a substance.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES - the chemical


composition or identity of the substance is changed.
All that will be left is a different chemical substance.

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