General Chemistry
General Chemistry
1 MEASUREMENTS
MEASUREMENTS
QUANTITATIVE OBSERVATIONS
- called a measurement
- Number and a Unit (scale)
- Both parts must be present for the
measurement to be meaningful.
QUALITATIVE OBSERVATIONS BASIC TYPES OF QUANTITY
- does not involve a NUMBER 1. FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES
- quantities measured by DIRECT
STANDARD SYSTEMS OF UNITS METHOD
● ENGLISH SYSTEM
2. DERIVED QUANTITIES
● METRIC SYSTEM
- Quantities that emanate or are a
result of the combination of
SI UNITS
fundamental quantities after a set
of operations.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
1. NON-ZERO INTEGERS
- lahat ng hindi zero, counted as 1
SF YON
- 1234 - 4 SF
2. ZEROS
A. LEADING ZEROS
PREFIXES IN SI SYSTEM - lahat ng zero before a
non-zero, ay HINDI
COUNTED
- 0.0000001 - 1 SF
B. CAPTIVE ZEROS
- lahat ng zero between
non-zeros, ay MAY
BILANG SA SF
- 1.605009402 - 10 SF
C. TRAILING ZEROS
- lahat ng zeros na after ng non-zero
BASTA MAY DECIMAL POINT, ay
VOLUME COUNTED
- physical quantity that is very important in - 1000000000 - 1 SF
chemistry. - 0.0000100000 - 6 SF
- derived from length
3. EXACT NUMBERS
- determined by counting
instead of measuring
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SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025
EXPONENTIAL NOTATION
Advantages
- Fewer zeros are needed to write a very large COMMON CONVERSION FACTORS
or very small number. MUST REMEMBER!
- The number of significant figures can be
easily indicated
N x 10n
TYPES OF ERRORS
Random Error
- Means that a measurement has an equal
probability of being high or low
Systematic Error
- This type of error occurs in the same TEMPERATURE
direction each time; it is either always high Fahrenheit
or always low. - The scale is now defined by setting the
freezing point of water at 32°F and the
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS boiling point of water at 212°F.
- necessary to convert a given result from one Celcius
system of units to another. - The Celsius scale was developed in a similar
- madaling way lang s’ya para madali mong way, but with the freezing point of pure
makita kung paano nakukuha yung desired water set at 0°C and the boiling point of
number mo. water at 100°C.
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SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025
MAGHIHIWALAY S’YA INTO 2 OR
MORE PRODUCTS
- usually require energy (heat, light,
or electricity) to take place.
- para malaman kung may H2O at
CO2 sa product, check always
kung IA BICARBONATES OR IIA
BICARBONATES BA SILA, this
simply means na magkakaroon
kayo ng tatlong products minsan.
(IF MY ADDTL. INFO PA KAYO, HEHE FEEL FREE TO ADD PLS,
BASED LANG DEN NAMAN SA PPT YAN NI SIR, THANK YOU)
2 CHEMICAL REACTION
2. DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS
- kabaligtaran lang s’ya ng
combination, FROM COMPOUND,
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SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025
5. NEUTRALIZATION REACTION
- dito naman, ang product ay laging 3 STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATION
water at salt.
- H2O AT COMPOUND NA STEPS IN CALCULATING STOICHIOMETRY
NAPRODUCE NG TWO
OPPOSITE CHARGES (SALT)
STEP 1:
- Tignan at i-list mo ang given, kunin mo ang
mass ng mga nasa reactant side at mass ng
nasa product side (set aside muna ‘to dahil
mamaya mo pa gagamitin sa percent yield
yan since ‘yan ang ACTUAL YIELD mo)
STEP 2:
- determine ang nangyaring chemical
6. COMBUSTION REACTION reaction, then saka mo i-balance. Ang mga
- reaction ng elements at numbers na pinaglalalagay mo sa tabi ng
compounds kasama si oxygen. mga elements or compounds jan, will serve
BASTA 2 LANG SILA SA as the number of moles or mole ratio ng
REACTANT THEN ANG ISA IS bawat isa.
OXYGEN STEP 3:
- compute mo na ang mga molar mass, isulat
BALANCING EQUATION dahil gagamitin mo ‘yan sa pag-compute ng
LAGING TANDAAN! buong process.
1. Unahin mong tignan ‘yung may STEP 4:
pinakamalaking subscript na compound or - proceed na sa calculation, insert na lang ako
‘yung pinaka-complex, then saka mo s’ya picture kung paano ang dapat gawin (galing
i-compare sa may product side. na lang module HHAHAHA)
2. Check lagi ang polyatomic ions
STEP 6:
- si excess mass is simply pag-minus mo ang ENERGY
mass ng reactant na may pinakamalaking - capacity to do work
number of grams sa may Step 4, at ‘yung - cannot be seen, touched, smelled, or
- weighed but all of its form are capable of
doing work
mass na nakuha mo sa Step 5 (excess
reactant) WORK
STEP 7: - Directed energy change results from a
- Theoretical yield is simply ‘yung mass na process
pinakamaliit kasama ang compound sa - of kinetic energy, thermal energy, chemical
product. For example sa module, ang mass energy, and potential energy. All forms of
na pinakamababa is 33.4g, then ang nasa energy can be transformed from one form to
product na acid is HCl, bale pagsamahin another.
lang: 33.4g of HCL
STEP 8: HEAT
- ang percent yield naman is, (ACTUAL - transfer of thermal energy between two
YIELD/THEORETICAL YIELD) x 100 bodies that are at different temperatures
- ‘yung mass na given for the product (nasa - Thermochemistry is the study of heat
tanong lang lagi yan) would be the change in chemical reactions
ACTUAL YIELD, then THEORETICAL
YIELD naman is ‘yung mass na nakuha mo SYSTEM AND SURROUNDINGS
na may pinakamababang value nung - SYSTEM - is the specific part of the
pinag-compare mo sa STEP 4 universe that interests us.
➔ Open System - exchange of mass
1. results and get feedback. Look for what and energy
needs revision and improvement. ➔ Closed System - transfer of energy
but not mass
2. IMPROVE: REDESIGN AS NEEDED - Share ➔ Isolated System - does not allow
results and continue to seek how your team the transfer of either mass or
could make the solution better. Iterate your energy
design to make the product the best it can - SURROUNDINGS - are the rest of the
be. universe outside the system
EXOTHERMIC PROCESS
4 ENERGY CHANGES OF CHEMICAL
- any process that gives off heat or energy
REACTIONS
ENDOTHERMIC PROCESS
HEAT CAPACITY AND CALORIMETRY - heat has to be supplied to the system by the
surroundings.
● LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
- in a chemical reaction, mass is CALORIMETRY- the measurement of heat changes
neither created nor destroyed CALORIMETER - closed container to measure heat
changes
● LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
- energy can neither be created nor SPECIFIC HEAT (s) - the amount of heat required to
destroyed; only converted from one raise the temperature of one gram of the substance by
form of energy to another one degree Celcius
- total quantity of energy in the
universe is assumed to be constant
- J/g·°C
- when one form of energy - Intensive property
disappears, some form of energy
(of equal magnitude) must HEAT CAPACITY (C) - the amount of heat required to
appear, and vice versa raise the temperature of a given quantity of the
substance by one degree Celcius.
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SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025
- J/g·°C The heat changes for the process (qrxn) is equal to
the enthalpy change
- Extensive Property
No heat enters or leaves!
FORMULAS AND RELATIONSHIPS
𝐶 = 𝑚𝑠 ENTHALPY
Where: The reaction is considered as expansion when there
m = mass of the substance in grams is a net increase in the number of moles of a gas after
C = heat capacity the reaction and conversely, it is compression if
s = specific heat more gas molecules are consumed than are
produced.
FORMULAS FOR AMOUNT OF HEAT
The work is done on the surroundings for an
𝑞 = 𝑚𝑠∆𝑡 expansion process and it is done on the system for a
compression process. There is no work done if there
𝑞 = 𝐶∆𝑡 is no net change in the number of moles of gases
Where: from the reactants to products.
q = amount of heat that has been absorbed or
released
= (+) for endothermic and (-) for exothermic ∆𝐸 = 𝑞 + 𝑤
ms = mass x specific heat = C (heat capacity) = 𝑞𝑝 − 𝑃∆𝑉
Δt = change in temperature or Tfinal - Tiniitial
𝑞𝑝 = ∆𝐸 + 𝑃∆𝑉
Where the subscript “p” means the
CONSTANT-VOLUME BOMB CALORIMETER
constant-pressure condition
Heat of Combustion is usually measured by placing a
known compound mass in a steel container called a H = E + PV
constant-volume bomb calorimeter, which is filled where E is the internal energy of the system and P
with oxygen at about 30 atm of pressure. (pressure) and V (volume) of the system,
respectively.
The special design of the calorimeter enables us to
assume that no heat (or mass) is lost to the For any process, the change in enthalpy is given by
surroundings during the time it takes to make ΔH = ΔE + Δ(PV)
measurements
If the pressure is held constant, then
Therefore, we can call the bomb and he water in ΔH = ΔE + PΔV
which it is submerged an isolated system.
‘Pag ang reaction ay under constant-volume
Bomb Calorimeter Formula conditions, ang heat change ay ΔE. Pero kapag ang
reaction ay constant pressure lang, si heat change ay
qsystem = qcal + qrxn ΔH.
qsystem = 0
For an endothermic process (heat absorbed by the
qcal = CcalΔT system from the surroundings), ΔH is positive (that
qrxn = -qcal is, ΔH > 0). For an exothermic process (heat
released by the system to the surroundings), ΔH is
negative (that is, ΔH < 0).
Where qcal and qrxn are the heat changes for the
calorimeter and the reaction, respectively.
ENTHALPY - THERMOCHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Thermochemical equations show the enthalpy
CONSTANT-PRESSURE CALORIMETER
change as well as the mass relationships.
Constant-pressure calorimeter is used to determine
the heat changes for non-combustion reactions.
Also called Coffee Cup Calorimeter (styrofoam)
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SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025
A reaction will never spontaneously move away from The Second Law of Thermodynamics is defined as
equilibrium and will always move spontaneously the entropy of the universe increasing in a
towards equilibrium. spontaneous process and remaining unchanged in an
equilibrium process. A spontaneous reaction
The best indicator of spontaneity in a reaction is the increases the entropy of the universe
change of Entropy (S or ΔS).
G = H – TS
ENTROPY ΔG < 0 - spontaneous
Entropy (S) is described as a measure of how ΔG > 0 - non-spontaneous
spread out or dispersed the energy of a system is ΔG = 0 - equilibrium
among the different possible ways that a system can
contain energy.
1
0 n → 11p + -10β
To calculate the n-factor of a salt of such type, we
take one mole of the reactant and find the number ● Ang positron same mass ng electron, pero
of moles of the element whose oxidation state is +1 ang charge
changing. This is multiplied by the oxidation state of ● Ang α particle ay may 2 protons at 2
the element in the reactant, which gives us the total
neutrons. Atomic number na 2, mass
oxidation state of the element in the reactant.
number na 4
● Ang total mass number at total atomic
(as far as I can remember, ito lang ‘yung number ng
number ng reactant ay equal dapat kay
electrons na kasama sa reaction)
product.
72
36 n → 3468p + 24He
Note: check ang atomic number (nasa baba)
para malaman kung ano ang element
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
- study of reactions involving changes in
atomic nuclei.
- It all started with the discovery of natural
radioactivity by Antoine Becquerel and
grew with the works of Pierre and Marie ATTRACTIVE FORCES > REPULSIVE
Curie and many others. FORCES - NUCLEUS IS STABLE
NUCLEAR FUSION
Advantages
● The fuels are cheap;
● The process produces little radioactive
waste.
NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATION
- the result of the bombardment of nuclei by
neutrons, protons, or other nuclei;
synthesize the new element na nagawa after
collision.
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SCI 401 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2024 – 2025
CHEMICAL CHANGE
● “Hydrogen gas burns in oxygen gas to form
water”
7 MATTER AND ENERGY
STATES OF MATTER
● Solid
● Liquid
● Gas