Building Mathematical Confidence: Using

Math Talk in a Second Language Context

Allison Robb-Hagg

This paper evaluates the effectiveness of Math Talk This research suggested Math Talk is effective in
to communicate mathematical reasoning in French. helping students communicate mathematical thinking
This high-impact strategy built student confidence and reasoning in a second language learning
and fact fluency in a French immersion context. This context.
action research study, conducted with 19 Grade 4
students, used a mixed-methods approach to examine
Punaro and Reeve (2012) found a significant
changes in student confidence as they communicated
relationship between worrying about math and
their mathematical thinking and reasoning. Findings
problem solving in nine-year-old students.
suggested that to increase student confidence and
communication of mathematical reasoning, students
must collaboratively construct their knowledge. Lan- Math trauma and math anxiety are real. As a
guage frameworks, targeted mental math strategies teacher and as someone who suffered math trauma
and established norms were required to cocreate as a child, I see and feel the impact of mathematical
knowledge. Growth in self-confidence in mathemati- anxiety every day in my Grade 4 French immersion
cal discourse was p<0.001, indicating a statistically classroom. Students who were once described as
significant time effect, signifying a positive impact confident and competent mathematicians are becom-
on student self-confidence in their ability to com- ing tentative and reluctant, saying that they are “bad
municate their mathematical reasoning in French. at math.” Punaro and Reeve (2012) found a significant

20 delta-K, Volume 56, Number 1, April 2021

relationship between worrying about math and prob- Talks as a way for students to build their mathematical
lem solving in nine-year-old students (as cited in Hill confidence. It was my theory that if you can talk about
et al 2015). An increase in subject-specific mathemati- a concept in the target language, then students will
cal anxiety results in a lack of confidence among have some level of engagement and understanding,
students, which has also been tied to a lack of motiva- hence building confidence. “The core of mathematics
tion, and students who have low self-concept are not is reasoning—thinking through why methods make
confident in their mathematical abilities, resulting in sense and talking about reasons for the use of different
methods” (Boaler, Williams and Confer 2015).
Did their lack of ability to express their
mathematical thinking and reasoning affect Barwell (2020) reminds us to consider the
their mathematical confidence and added layer of complexity when learning a
computational skills? second language while developing the
language of mathematics.
poor performance (Organization for Economic Co-
Parker (2019) also suggests students are more eager
operation and Development [OECD] 2014). Mathe-
to learn subject-specific vocabulary when it helps them
matical anxiety affects not only conceptual under-
communicate their thinking more efficiently. A way to
standing but also students’ social-emotional
do this is with a Math Talk. A Math Talk is a short
well-being and mathematical confidence. Student
routine (10–15 minutes) that intentionally designs oral
mental health is at risk with the absence of founda-
language math tasks that engage students in metacogni-
tional knowledge, jeopardizing their mathematical
tive thinking, empowering a culture where learning is
futures (Dowker, Sarkar and Looi 2016). It was this
cocreated by the students and results in the automaticity
growing lack of confidence and observed anxiety in
of their basic facts (Schoenfeld 1992; Veenman, Van
the math classroom that led me to conduct an action
Hout-Wolters and Afflerbach 2006, 148, as cited in
research project with my students. Action research is
Hattie, Fisher and Frey 2017). Research shows that
a teacher-driven inquiry that responds to a problem
past pedagogical practices such as timed tests and
of practice. In this case, why are students becoming
procedural learning create conditions for subject-
less confident in communicating their mathematical
specific anxiety to flourish. This results in a child’s
thinking and reasoning? What can I do about it?
inability to become an autonomous, confident and
As a language teacher, the tension between wanting
competent mathematician (Sun 2018); thus, it is im-
to have students express their mathematical thinking
portant to look at learning conceptually. Barwell (2020)
and reasoning while correcting their grammar and
reminds us to consider the added layer of complexity
vocabulary in the target language is a constant battle.
when learning a second language while developing the
Language learners do not have the necessary vocabu-
language of mathematics. This is reflected in my re-
lary at their fingertips the way they do in their first
search as this study suggests that engaging in Math
language, nor do they always have the correct sentence
Talks builds student confidence by giving them the
structure. Teachers are encouraged to prompt and recast
tools necessary to communicate their mathematical
to correct mistakes (Lyster and Izquierdo 2009) to
thinking and reasoning in the target language. This
avoid solidifying errors; however, this has the potential
research argues the use of Math Talk in a French im-
to interrupt the flow of mathematical thinking, resulting
mersion classroom will increase student confidence,
in students getting flustered and giving up.
resulting in a decrease in observed mathematical anxi-
My school has been focusing on the use of the
ety during math class.
neurolinguistic approach (NLA) to language acquisi-
tion. NLA is a pedagogical approach to acquiring and
teaching a second language that focuses on the ability Review of the Literature
to communicate, with an emphasis on the use of oral
language. As a second language school, our students
are strong in the use of oral language. I began to wonder Decreased Mathematical Self-Confidence
how we could leverage this strength in using oral lan- as a Result of Mathematical Anxiety
guage in math class. Did their lack of ability to express Mathematical anxiety, a subject-specific anxiety,
their mathematical thinking and reasoning affect their is a strong physiological and psychological aversion
mathematical confidence and computational skills? I to mathematics, which causes functional changes in
wondered if there was a way to combine our current the brain including declines in working memory and
work in NLA and the high-impact strategy of Math processing speed (Hembree 1990; Maloney and

delta-K, Volume 56, Number 1, April 2021 21

Beilock 2012; Richardson and Suinn 1972, as cited flexibility. Emphasis is put on the process of arriving
in Gunderson et al 2018). Mathematics anxiety has at the answer (not the product) and the idea that to
been defined as “a feeling of tension and anxiety that struggle is productive. This way, for students it be-
interferes with the manipulation of numbers and the comes about the journey of arriving at the answer and
solving of mathematical problems in ... ordinary life less about finding the right answer. Math talks can
and academic situations” (Dowker, Sarkar and Looi “help students learn to embrace the idea of confusion
2016). Mathematical anxiety in the classroom can or cognitive dissonance and come to understand that,
lead to withdrawal, inattention, fixed mindset and with mathematics, a state of confusion can be an
negative attitude resulting in academic decline, but important and productive place to hang out” (Parker
where does the math anxiety come from? 2019, 6).
The OECD (2014) results show that math anxiety When students explain their mathematical reason-
is influenced by several factors including gender, ing verbally, others understand their process, and all
ethnicity, culture, parents’ views of math, teachers’ students benefit (Hattie, Fisher and Frey 2017). Re-
anxiety and ineffective pedagogy. All of these vari- search suggests that Math Talk is an effective teaching
ables play a role in identifying possible roots. It is strategy to increase fact fluency and flexibility to build
important to identify possible causes and what can confidence (Humphreys and Parker 2015). It is yet
be done to potentially mitigate the effects for unknown if this research can be generalizable to
students. second language learning, in this case French immer-
sion, where language is an additional factor.
Math Talk is a high-impact strategy
currently being used in many English Implementation of Math Talk in the
classrooms to build flexibility, fluency French Immersion Classroom
and automaticity with numbers. Successful implementation of Math Talk requires
a classroom community with a mathematical growth
mindset where mistakes are valued and productive
Math Talk as an Intervention struggle is embraced. Norms are to be established
Math Talk is a high-impact strategy currently being collaboratively facilitating the positive and supportive
used in many English classrooms to build flexibility, culture where students have the psychological safety
fluency and automaticity with numbers (Boaler, Wil- to be vulnerable. Norms are the set of principles that
liams and Confer 2015). First developed by Ruth the classroom community agreed on, which allows a
Parker and Kathy Richardson, it is intended to allow group to work collaboratively. These principles are
“every student to find their voice in math class … the based on sharing, respect, trust and belonging. Teach-
beauty of it is that this routine can fully engage every ers help students to learn to persevere, seeing mistakes
student and every teacher at every level” (Parker 2019, as an opportunity in learning rather than a failure
3). Math Talk returns to the basics of number sense, (Furner and Berman 2012). One simple yet effective
establishing the foundation for all subsequent work, norm, putting up a thumb close to their body rather
while providing a psychologically safe environment. than putting up their hand, gives students time to
Metacognition research shows that students achieve think, allowing for all students to participate, regard-
more when they engage in reasoning about their less of ability. Students who are quick to answer are
thinking (Schoenfeld 1992; Veenman, Van Hout- encouraged to remain silent and to come up with
Wolters and Afflerbach 2006, 148, as cited in Hattie, additional strategies, adding a finger up to their thumb
Fisher and Frey 2017). Using metacognitive strategies for each additional strategy, levelling the playing field
during Math Talk facilitates the students’ ability to between students (Parrish 2011). To facilitate dis-
struggle productively. For example, students will course, language frameworks can also be useful as a
explain as many ways as possible for mentally solving help to prompt the type of language we want to hear
the problem of 18 × 5 (such as 10 × 5 = 50 and 8 × 5 from the students (Hattie, Fisher and Frey 2017). In
= 40 then 50 + 40 = 90 or 5 × 5 + 5 × 5 + 5 × 5 + 5 French immersion, sentence frameworks and posted
× 3 = 25 + 25 + 25 + 15 = 90 and so on). Students vocabulary can function as a lifeline for students who
discuss, compare, agree, disagree and analyze the otherwise might not participate, serving as a jumping-
different solutions provided by their peers. Value is off point for thinking or discussions.
placed on the process rather than the answer, which Humphreys and Parker (2015) advise using caution
supports productive struggle. A productive struggle when focusing too intently on the correct sentence
is a habit of mind that encourages perseverance and structure and use of vocabulary, warning that it may

22 delta-K, Volume 56, Number 1, April 2021

be counterproductive. Focusing on the correct sen- competence is the ability to use language spontane-
tence structure, vocabulary and pronunciation, the ously. Explicit competence is the conscious awareness
expression of mathematical reasoning may be hin- of how the language works and the structures and
dered, which is especially problematic in a French frameworks necessary to successfully have knowl-
immersion context. Attention must be given to the edge of how the language works. Most important,
balance between intentionality of the lesson (expres- language acquisition occurs first through oral com-
sion of mathematical reasoning) and correction of the petence followed by reading and writing (Netten and
language structure. Germain 2012).
While all of the NLA principles apply, principle
Research has demonstrated that learning five, the need for interplay between students in the
mathematics in a second language is a factor classroom, is notable when examining the use of Math
in mathematical performance. Talk in the classroom. NLA research supports fre-
quent use and reuse of oral language in authentic
spontaneous communicative situations to build neural
Neurolinguistic Approach (NLA) in pathways to create procedural memory (Netten and
Support of Mathematical Discourse Germain 2012). Teachers facilitate language acquisi-
Language acquisition research allows for making tion through modelling and correction of the proper
a plausible connection between the pedagogical ap- sentence structure and vocabulary. Proper language
plication of Math Talk and teaching math in the target structures should be encouraged for language to so-
language. “Research has demonstrated that learning lidify in specific contexts. Using sentence structures
mathematics in a second language is a factor in math- and subject-specific vocabulary are essential to stu-
ematical performance” (Bournot-Trites and Reeder dent success (Hattie, Fisher and Frey 2017). For
2001; Clarkson 2007; Ní Ríordáin and O’Donoghue example, when students explained their strategy for
2009; Secada 1991, 1992, 151, as cited in Barwell addition, they used the correct vocabulary (quand
2020). The body of literature focuses primarily on j’additionne, la somme est ___ parce que… when I
using math talks with English learners, so examining add, the sum is ____ because) instead of the vague
research on language acquisition aids in understand- descriptions (this and that is…), which is common
ing how mathematical language is acquired. when students lack the necessary vocabulary to ex-
Netten and Germain’s (2012) NLA paradigm can press their process or reasoning.
be examined, and generalizations can be based on
what is currently known of the brain and how it pro-
cesses the acquisition of language. This paradigm
Methodology and Theoretical
explains that language acquisition occurs through Framework
implicit and explicit competencies. Implicit Action research is a systematic method that ad-
FIGURE 1. Stringer’s Action Research Cycle dresses problems of practice. Grounded in the prag-
matist paradigm, action research is iterative in nature
and therefore has to be flexible to respond to student
needs in the classroom (Parsons et al 2013). This
study used both quantitative and qualitative data to
evaluate the impact of Math Talks on student confi-
Look dence and computation. As an action research, this
Act, Plan, Teach
or Evaluate Gather Information study was teacher-driven and addressed a problem of
Observe Students practice in my Grade 4 classroom. I adhered to
Stringer’s (1999, as cited in Parsons et al 2013)
simple, yet flexible methodology for conducting
classroom-based action research (see Figure 1).
Quantitative and qualitative types of data were
useful, adding to the strengths of each perspective
while at the same time mitigating their limitations
Think
(Creswell 2014). This helped to triangulate the data,
Reflect enhancing its validity. Quantitative data was collected
Analyze Student by having students self-reflect and answer a standard
Activity paper confidence questionnaire and self-assessment,

delta-K, Volume 56, Number 1, April 2021 23

which statistically indicated growth of students’ self- Method
confidence over the course of the study. Qualitative
data was collected through standard paper student
self-assessments, including a rubric asking students Setting and Participants
to rate their confidence in specific areas such as when This study was conducted with students from a
talking about math out loud and their thinking and western Canadian Grade 4 French immersion class-
reasoning skills. Students responded with one of three room. All students had attended French immersion
choices: I am there, I am getting there or I am not since kindergarten and were conversational in the
there yet. Students also commented on things that French language. All mathematical instruction was
they did well and suggested an area for growth. Com- conducted in French, while assessments were admin-
ments provided insight into students’ opinions of their istered in English. Of the possible 25 students, 19 gave
own growth as well as a deeper understanding of the consent; in addition, parental consent was obtained.
implications for Math Talks in a French immersion Thirteen girls and six boys with a mean age of 9.3
classroom and were used to adjust teaching strategies constituted the study. No student had participated in a
when planning subsequent lessons. Math Talk prior to participating in this study.

FIGURE 2. Student conditions for success of Math Talk in French immersion.

Be confident.

Practise using
Take a risk and proper language
participate; it’s and vocabulary so it
OK to struggle. becomes automatic.
Personal
Development

Establish a Mathematical Think of a variety of

Structures strategies for solving
collaborative Capacity
classroom equations; don’t stop
community at one strategy.
and norms.

Use posted framework Practise mental math

to help express skills for automaticity and
mathematical thinking build a bank of strategies
and reasoning. to draw on.

24 delta-K, Volume 56, Number 1, April 2021

Data Collection
Beginning by establishing classroom norm
Students were the exclusive source of data col- and culture that is safe and caring is
lection. The study comprised three phases. All data paramount to the successful implementation
was collected in students’ first language: of a Math Talk.
English.
Phase 1: Confidence questionnaire was admin-
istered to students. Questions included subcatego- Norms and Psychological Safety
ries of motivation, value, self-confidence and en- A consistent theme throughout the literature, which
joyment of math. Students indicated their feelings was supported by the study, is that students require a
based on a four-point Likert scale. psychologically safe environment that allows them
Phase 2: Four Math Talk lessons were adminis- to take risks and engage in productive struggles. “A
tered over two weeks. Students communicated situation in which a young language learner feels
mathematical thinking, reasoned and used mental subject to the ridicule of his or her friends has a strong
math strategies. Students completed self-assess- potential to divert attention to self-protection motives
ments of their level of confidence, which were ana- because social acceptance is one of the most salient
lyzed after each Math Talk and used to plan sub- motives for adolescents” (Olthof and Goossens 2008;
sequent tasks as well as to adjust teaching. Ullrich-French and Smith 2007, as cited in MacIntyre,
Qualitative data and student comments were coded, Burns and Jessome 2011).
then grouped and themed. Emerging themes identi- Beginning by establishing classroom norm and
fied by students were grouped into overarching culture that is safe and caring is paramount to the
categories of personal development, mathematical successful implementation of a Math Talk. An analy-
capacity and structures. sis of the students’ self-assessment data after the Math
Phase 3: Confidence questionnaires were admin- Talks suggested positive growth between the pre and
istered a second time to compare with the baseline. post self-assessment questionnaire for question one:
To meet ethics requirements, a third party collected “I feel comfortable talking about math in class.” A
the data while a school board employee ensured statistically significant time effect indicated growth
student safety and confidentiality. in student confidence over the course of the four Math
All data was anonymized prior to analysis. Talks. These results were supported by the qualitative
Limitations of this study include the limited amount findings that students had developed mathematical
of time to conduct the research study resulting in confidence through the use of Math Talks. Students
a limit in scope and small sample size, which varied were asked for specific examples of things that they
between 8 to 19 participants depending on the Math had done well after each Math Talk. Comments for
Talk. the question, “Things I did well” included, “I told
Madame my answer,” “I did well at contributing to
the discussion,” “I feel comfortable talking about
Discussion math in front of the class” (student comments from
Based on the findings of this study and the lit- self-assessment 2018). A review of students’ com-
erature, key conditions are necessary for the suc- ments allowed for monitoring of developing self-
cessful implementation of Math Talk in a French confidence and fact fluency as well as gained insight
immersion or language learner context. Highlighted into student perseverance (Kersaint 2017) between
are the three intentional steps to take to successfully each Math Talk. The students’ comments also allow
impact student self-confidence, resulting in a de- for teaching adjustments as well as implementing the
crease in mathematical anxiety. In the data col- required supports. The most important adjustment
lected, students commented that they were building made during the study was the addition of the posted
their confidence by developing a growth mindset Math Talk sentence structure framework and posted
and engaging in productive struggle. Using the vocabulary.
structures provided as well as building their math-
ematical capacity in computation allowed students Language Framework
to feel more confident in sharing their mathematical As part of the action research cycle, students’
thinking and reasoning. The surrounding figures comments were analyzed after each Math Talk for
represent the conditions that students indicated possible improvement and teaching adjustments. The
were the necessary conditions for success when greatest statistical significance during the study was
engaging in a Math Talk in French (see Figure 2). indicated between time two and four, yet there was a

delta-K, Volume 56, Number 1, April 2021 25

statistically significant time effect between the begin- In Figure 3, the student will begin by stating the
ning and conclusion of the Math Talk study. This answer. “La somme est ___ parce que… (the sum
could be attributed to students becoming accustomed is… because…). The word because is the most im-
to the norms and structures as they were beginning portant part of this framework as it requires students
to reason using the French language. By Math Talk to explain how and why. In particular, students will
four, students were beginning to not only explain their explain why they used a particular strategy and will
mathematical reasoning in French but were also en- to justify it. The students will then defend their answer
gaged in a debate about the validity and efficacy of using the yellow strips; for example, I used the strat-
egy of…, I rounded, I estimated, I decomposed ____
their claims with their peers.
so that I could____. Once the student has finished
These findings are supported by the research of
their statement, their peers are invited to agree or
Humphreys and Parker (2015) that indicates establish- disagree using the green strips: I agree because or I
ing a way of communicating about mathematical disagree because…, as well as a way to specifically
thinking not only grows student confidence but also address a strategy used by a peer. This framework
helps them make sense out of mathematics and math- allows students to use the correct sentence structure
ematical relationships. Building a classroom culture and vocabulary necessary to express their mathemati-
based on agreed on norms is essential in providing cal thinking and reasoning. Using the principles of
students with the psychological safety necessary to NLA, it is through the explicit teaching of the math-
fully engage in discourse, struggle productively and ematical vocabulary and sentence structure that the
feel safe enough to publicly contest others. implicit use of vocabulary and correct sentence
Following the first Math Talk, students’ comments structure will arise. Building common mathematical
indicated a lack of confidence when having to discuss language aids in constructing conceptual understand-
and defend their answers. Specifically, students men- ing as a whole class. It was instrumental to the success
tioned that they did not have the necessary French of the subsequent Math Talks, and similar frameworks
vocabulary or sentence structure to express what they are still coconstructed with students at the beginning
were wanting to communicate mathematically. As a of each new mathematical concept.
When examining the pairwise comparison on time
result, students coconstructed the visual sentence
effect between times one and three, there was a posi-
framework and listed the strategies possible using the tive impact on student confidence. However, student
correct vocabulary. comments identified that “using the math
FIGURE 3. Sentence structure framework for « la discussion vocabulary” and “trying to remember
mathématique ». Collaboratively designed framework and the strategy in my head to talk about it”
vocabulary used to facilitate Math Talk in French, specific to the were still areas for growth in the subse-
concept of two-digit by two-digit addition and its possible quent self-assessments. Students contin-
strategies. ued to require the teacher to pay atten-
tion to the specific French vocabulary
and sentence structure while learning to
reason mathematically.
Traditionally, no visible vocabulary
or language frameworks are present dur-
ing a Math Talk or NLA. In the context
of this study, however, it was determined
that students required additional visual
supports that were coconstructed to meet
their emerging needs. Once readily
available, the students actively used the
visual supports to confidently express
their mathematical thinking in French.
Students indicated through comments
that these frameworks were necessary,
yet practising using the correct sentence
structure and vocabulary was still an area
for growth. This was supported by the
preliminary data that indicated that

26 delta-K, Volume 56, Number 1, April 2021

greater efficacy could have been achieved with more Over the course of the study, students who self-
Math Talks over a longer time. assessed their confidence using Math Talk suggested
Do note that “more talk in classrooms does not positive growth in self-confidence in the area of com-
necessarily enhance student understanding. Better municating their thinking and reasoning. Impact on
understanding is dependent on particular pedagogical self-confidence was indicated by analyzed data col-
approaches purposefully focused on developing a lected from the self-assessment rubric, goal setting
discourse culture that elicits clarification and pro- and self-confidence subcategory of the pre and post
duces consensus within the classroom community” questionnaire. As my position as a researcher was
(Walshaw and Anthony 2008, 522). emic, from inside the classroom, I witnessed students
increase their use of mathematical vocabulary, mental
Encourage Productive Struggle and math, strategies and use of the framework as well as
Mathematical Growth Mindset a decrease in observed mathematical anxiety.
A mathematical growth mindset is paramount for
a successful Math Talk. Self-confidence is an impor- Conclusion
tant factor in mathematics self-concept, which is
necessary for a mathematical growth mindset. The Talking about math “can lure students into the
mathematical growth mindset is a belief that with world of mathematics and builds their confidence and
hard work and perseverance, anyone, regardless of their beliefs in themselves as sense makers” (Parker
ability, can succeed in mathematics. Fostered inten- and Humphreys 2018, 81). Building self-confidence
tionally through effective strategies, meaningful is the first step to reducing observed mathematical
discourse occurs when a classroom culture of partici- anxiety in the classroom as research has shown that
pation and equitable learning experiences are valued mathematics anxiety impacts basic computation and
(Bennett 2014). In contrast, fixed mindset, students fluency (Ashcraft and Ridley 2005; Maloney et al
are unable or unwilling to make the changes necessary 2010, as cited in Young, Wu and Menon 2012) impact-
to grow, resulting in low self-confidence (Dweck ing students’ self-confidence in their abilities and
2006). Implications of low self-confidence could therefore their performance.
include avoiding mathematical activities and situa- Math talks are now a daily routine in my Grade 4
tions, which leads to reduced fluency (Dowker, Sarkar French immersion classroom as well as many other
and Looi 2016). Risk-taking acquiesces mistakes and classrooms in my school. Supported by visual sen-
facilitates growth mindset, thereby increasing student tence frameworks and posted vocabulary, students
confidence. “We now know that when students make are able to reason mathematically in the target lan-
mistakes in math, their brain grows, synapses fire and guage with confidence and ease. Important to remem-
connections are made” (Boaler, Williams and Confer ber is the purpose of the Math Talk by correcting
2015, 5). Students need to know that struggling is sentence structure or vocabulary in French only if it
productive, and it facilitates deeper learning, which will not hinder the flow of the mathematical
helps students to make connections among mathe- thinking.
matical relationships. Establishing a culture where After the conclusion of the study, other teachers
mistakes equate to learning is the foundation of hav- at my school began to implement Math Talks in their
ing a mathematical growth mindset (Dweck 2006). classroom using the planning tools and frameworks
Research shows increasing students’ conceptual developed during this study. We are beginning to see
understanding in math is essential to math-anxious an impact as a school, for example, in the level of
students’ success (Beilock et al 2004; Ashcraft and excellence achieved by the Grade 6 students during
Krause 2007; Turner et al 2002, as cited in Boaler their provincial achievement test (PAT) on the fact
2014; Parrish 2011; Ramirez et al 2013). Although fluency component. Post PAT, students reported feel-
conceptual understanding can be achieved in different ing confident and scored much higher than they had
ways, one of the more effective methods is through on the MIPI (Mathematical Intervention/Program-
open-ended tasks and practices that value different ming Instrument) conducted in September since be-
ways of thinking such as number talks, also known ginning the daily routine of Math Talks. We will
as Math Talks (Parrish 2011; Boaler 2014). Scholars continue to use Math Talks and monitor students for
have also observed that math anxiety was higher in long-term effects on confidence and computation.
classrooms that valued performance over mastery This study is a beginning for evaluating the impact
(Turner et al 2002; Ashcraft and Krause 2007, as cited of Math Talk in a second language context, specifi-
in Boaler 2014). cally in French, on student mathematical confidence.

delta-K, Volume 56, Number 1, April 2021 27

More research is needed to study the long-term effects Creswell, J W. 2014. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantita-
of using Math Talk supported by NLA principles and tive, and Mixed Method Approaches. 4th ed. Thousand Oaks,
Calif: SAGE.
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Dowker, A, A Sarkar and C Looi. 2016. “Mathematics Anxiety:
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