1.

**Generalization**
Generalization is the process of extracting shared characteristics from two or more classes and
combining them into a generalized superclass. The derived classes inherit properties and behaviors from
the superclass.

** Example: **

- **Superclass: ** `Animal`

- **Subclasses: ** `Dog`, `Cat`, `Bird`

class Animal {

public:

void eat () {/*...*/}

};

class Dog: public Animal {/*...*/};

class Cat: public Animal {/*...*/};

**Diagram: **

Animal

/ \

Dog Cat

2. **Sub-typing (Extension)**
Sub-typing refers to creating new types (subclasses) by extending an existing type (superclass). This is
an "is-a" relationship where the subclass inherits properties from the superclass.

**Example: **

- `Dog` is a subtype of `Animal`, and `Cat` is another subtype of `Animal`.

3. **Specialization (Restriction)**
Specialization is the opposite of generalization. It refers to creating a more specific class from a general
class, restricting some features or behaviors.

**Example: **

- If `Animal` is generalized, `Dog` and `Cat` are specialized versions with additional properties, such as
`bark () ` for `Dog` and `meow () ` for `Cat`.

4. **Overriding**
Overriding occurs when a subclass provides a specific implementation of a method that is already
defined in its superclass. It improves the behavior(functionality) of the existing class.

**Example: **

class Animal {

public:

virtual void sound() {

cout << "Animal sound";

};

class Dog : public Animal {

public:

void sound() override {

cout << "Woof!";

};

- The method `sound()` is overridden in the `Dog` class to provide a specific behavior.

### 5. **Reasons for Overriding**

- **Customization:** To provide a specific behavior in a subclass.

- **Polymorphism:** To enable dynamic method invocation at runtime using base class pointers.

- **Reusability:** To reuse superclass methods while extending or modifying their behavior.

### 6. **Abstract Classes**

An abstract class is a class that cannot be instantiated directly and often contains at least one pure
virtual function.

**Example:**

```cpp

class Animal {
 public:

virtual void sound() = 0; // pure virtual function

};

```

### 7. **Concrete Classes**

Concrete classes are classes that can be instantiated and provide implementations for all their
methods.

**Example:**

```cpp

class Dog : public Animal {

public:

void sound() override {

cout << "Woof!";

};

```

### 8. **Diamond Problem**

The **Diamond Problem** arises in languages like C++ with multiple inheritance, where a subclass
inherits from two classes that both inherit from a common base class.

**Example:**

```

/\

B C

\/
 D

```

If both `B` and `C` inherit from `A`, and `D` inherits from both `B` and `C`, there may be ambiguity
about which version of `A`'s attributes or methods `D` should inherit.

### 9. **Solution to the Diamond Problem**

C++ resolves the Diamond Problem using **virtual inheritance**, ensuring that only one instance of
the base class is created.

**Example:**

```cpp

class A { /*...*/ };

class B : virtual public A { /*...*/ };

class C : virtual public A { /*...*/ };

class D : public B, public C { /*...*/ };

```

### 10. **Association**

Association represents a relationship between two classes where one class uses or interacts with
another class. It's a "has-a" relationship.

**Example:**

- A `Doctor` has a relationship with `Patient`.

**Diagram:**

```

Doctor ------- Patient

```

### 11. **Kinds of Association**

 - **Bidirectional:** Both classes are aware of each other (e.g., `Doctor` and `Patient`).

- **Unidirectional:** One class knows about the other, but not vice versa (e.g., `Car` knows about
`Engine`, but `Engine` doesn't know about `Car`).

### 12. **Types of Simple Association**

- **One-to-One:** One object of class A is associated with one object of class B.

- **One-to-Many:** One object of class A is associated with multiple objects of class B.

- **Many-to-Many:** Many objects of class A are associated with many objects of class B.

### 13. **Ternary Association**

A ternary association involves three classes or entities.

**Example:**

- `Doctor`, `Patient`, and `Appointment`.

### **N-ary Association**

An **n-ary association** in object-oriented modeling refers to a relationship involving more than two
classes or entities. A **ternary association** (3-way relationship) is a common example, but in general,
n-ary associations can involve any number of entities (where *n* is the number of participating classes).

### **Real-Life Example 1: Hospital System (Ternary Association) **

Consider a healthcare system involving three entities:

- **Doctor**

- **Patient**

- **Appointment**

In this case, a **ternary association** (a 3-way relationship) would represent the connection between a
doctor, a patient, and a specific appointment.
- A **Doctor** schedules multiple **Appointments** with different **Patients**.

- A **Patient** can have multiple **Appointments** with different **Doctors**.

#### **Diagram (Ternary Association): **

```

Doctor ------ Appointment ------- Patient

```

#### Explanation:

In this relationship:

- Each appointment involves one doctor and one patient.

- The association **Appointment** is the entity that links both doctors and patients.

- The appointment entity may store additional information such as the appointment date, time, and
location, capturing the specific relationship between the doctor and the patient.

### **Real-Life Example 2: University Enrollment (Quaternary Association) **

In a university enrollment system, consider the following entities:

- **Student**

- **Course**

- **Semester**

- **Professor**

A **quaternary association** (a 4-way relationship) can model a situation where:

- A **Student** is enrolled in a **Course**.

- The **Course** is taught by a **Professor**.

- The course is offered in a specific **Semester**.

#### **Diagram (Quaternary Association):**

```

Student ------ Enrollment ------- Course

|--------- Professor

|--------- Semester

```

#### Explanation:

In this case:

- The **Enrollment** entity acts as the association between a student, a course, a professor, and the
semester in which the course is taken.

- The enrollment record can store specific details, such as the grade, course schedule, or other relevant
information.

### 14. **Composition**

Composition is a strong form of association where the lifetime of the contained object is bound to the
lifetime of the container. If the container is destroyed, the contained objects are also destroyed.

**Example:**

- A `House` contains `Rooms`. If the house is destroyed, the rooms are destroyed as well.

**Diagram:**

```

House <>---- Room

```

### 15. **Composition is Stronger**

Composition is stronger because it implies ownership. The container "owns" the contained objects, and
they cannot exist independently.

### 16. **Aggregation**

 Aggregation is a weaker form of association where the contained objects can exist independently of
the container.

**Example:**

- A `Team` contains `Players`. If the team is disbanded, the players still exist.

**Diagram:**

```

Team ----<> Player

```

### 17. **Aggregation is Weaker**

Aggregation is weaker than composition because the lifetime of the contained objects is not
dependent on the container.