Basics Of Operating Systems

2.1 Basic Concept Of Operating Systems

An operating system acts as an intermediary between the user of a
computer and computer hardware. The purpose of an operating system
is to provide an environment in which a user can execute programs
conveniently and efficiently. An operating system is software that
manages computer hardware. The hardware must provide appropriate
mechanisms to ensure the correct operation of the computer system
and to prevent user programs from interfering with the proper
operation of the system. A more common definition is that the
operating system is the one program running at all times on the
computer (usually called the kernel), with all else being application
programs.An operating system is concerned with the allocation of
resources and services, such as memory, processors, devices, and
information. The operating system correspondingly includes programs
to manage these resources, such as a traffic controller, a scheduler, a
memory management module, I/O programs, and a file system.
• In the Computer System (comprises of Hardware and software),
Hardware can only understand machine code (in the form of 0
and 1) which doesn't make any sense to a naive user.We need a
system which can act as an intermediary and manage all the
processes and resources present in the system.
• An Operating System can be defined as an interface between
user and hardware. It is responsible for the execution of all the
processes, Resource Allocation, CPU management, File
Management and many other tasks.
2.2 Purpose Of Operating Systems
1. Memory Management
The operating system manages the Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main
memory is made up of a large array of bytes or words where each byte or word is
assigned a certain address. Main memory is fast storage and it can be accessed
directly by the CPU. For a program to be executed, it should be first loaded in the
main memory. An operating system manages the allocation and deallocation of
memory to various processes and ensures that the other process does not
consume the memory allocated to one process.
• It keeps track of primary memory, i.e., which bytes of memory are used by
which user program. The memory addresses that have already been
allocated and the memory addresses of the memory that has not yet been
used.
• In multiprogramming, the OS decides the order in which processes are
 granted memory access, and for how long.
• It Allocates the memory to a process when the process requests it and
deallocates the memory when the process has terminated or is performing
an I/O operation.
2. Processor Management
In a multi-programming environment, the OS decides the order in which
processes have access to the processor, and how much processing time each
process has. This function of OS is called Process Scheduling.An operating system
manages the processor’s work by allocating various jobs to it and ensuring that
each process receives enough time from the processor to function properly.Keeps
track of the status of processes. The program which performs this task is known as
a traffic controller. Allocates the CPU that is a processor to a process. De-allocates
processor when a process is no longer required.
3. Device Management
An OS manages device communication via its respective drivers.
• Keeps track of all devices connected to the system. Designates a program
responsible for every device known as the Input/Output controller.
• Decide which process gets access to a certain device and for how long.
• Allocates devices effectively and efficiently. Deallocates devices when they
are no longer required.
• There are various input and output devices. An OS controls the working of
these input-output devices.
• It receives the requests from these devices, performs a specific task, and
communicates back to the requesting process.forms the following activities
for device management.
4. File Management
A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation
and usage. These directories may contain other directories and other
files. An Operating System carries out the following file management
activities. It keeps track of where information is stored, user access
settings, the status of every file, and more. These facilities are
collectively known as the file system. An OS keeps track of information
regarding the creation, deletion, transfer, copy, and storage of files in an
organized way. It also maintains the integrity of the data stored in these
files, including the file directory structure, by protecting against
unauthorized access.
5. Security
The operating system uses password protection to protect user data
and similar other techniques. it also prevents unauthorized access to
programs and user data. The operating system provides various
techniques which assure the integrity and confidentiality of user data.
• Protection against unauthorized access through login.
• Protection against intrusion by keeping the firewall active.
• Protecting the system memory against malicious access.
• Displaying messages related to system vulnerabilities.
6. Command Interpretation
The user interacts with the computer system through the operating
system. Hence OS acts as an interface between the user and the
computer hardware. This user interface is offered through a set of
commands or a graphical user interface (GUI). Through this interface,
the user makes interacts with the applications and the machine
hardware.
7. Error Detection
The operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors
and avoid malfunctioning computer systems. From time to time, the
operating system checks the system for any external threat or malicious
software activity. It also checks the hardware for any type of damage.
This process displays several alerts to the user so that the appropriate
action can be taken against any damage caused to the system.
8. Networking
Network Communication: Think of them as traffic cops for your
internet traffic. Operating systems help computers talk to each other
and the internet. They manage how data is packaged and sent over the
network, making sure it arrives safely and in the right order.
Settings and Monitoring: Think of them as the settings and security
guard for your internet connection. They also let you set up your
network connections, like Wi-Fi or Ethernet, and keep an eye on how
your network is doing. They make sure your computer is using the
network efficiently and securely, like adjusting the speed of your
internet or protecting your computer from online threats.
9. Job Accounting
The operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various
tasks and users, this information can be used to track resource usage for
a particular user or group of users. In a multitasking OS where multiple
programs run simultaneously, the OS determines which applications
should run in which order and how time should be allocated to each
application.
2.3 Types Of Operating System(Main For Exam)6 Marks
Question
1. Batch Operating System
This type of operating system does not interact with the computer
directly. There is an operator which takes similar jobs having the same
requirements and groups them into batches. It is the responsibility of
the operator to sort jobs with similar needs. Batch Operating System is
designed to manage and execute a large number of jobs efficiently by
processing them in groups.
Advantages of Batch Operating System
• Multiple users can share the batch systems.
• The idle time for the batch system is very less.
• It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems.
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System
• Batch systems are hard to debug.
• It is sometimes costly.
• The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job
fails.
• In batch operating system the processing time for jobs is
commonly difficult to accurately predict while they are in the
queue.
• It is difficult to accurately predict the exact time required for a job
to complete while it is in the queue.
2. Multi-Programming Operating System
Multiprogramming Operating Systems can be simply illustrated as more
than one program is present in the main memory and any one of them
can be kept in execution. This is basically used for better execution of
resources.
Advantages of Multi-Programming Operating System
• Multi Programming increases the Throughput of the System.
 • It helps in reducing the response time.
Disadvantages of Multi-Programming Operating System
• There is not any facility for user interaction of system resources
with the system
3. Multi-Processing Operating System
Multi-Processing Operating System is a type of Operating System in
which more than one CPU is used for the execution of resources. It
betters the throughput of the System.
Advantages of Multi-Processing Operating System
It increases the throughput of the system.
As it has several processors, so, if one processor fails, we can proceed
with another processor.
Disadvantages of Multi-Processing Operating System
Due to the multiple CPU, it can be more complex and somehow difficult
to understand.
4. Multi-Tasking Operating System
Multitasking Operating System is simply a multiprogramming Operating
System with having facility of a Round-Robin Scheduling Algorithm. It
can run multiple programs simultaneously.
There are two types of Multi-Tasking Systems which are listed below.
1. Preemptive Multi-Tasking
2. Cooperative Multi-Tasking
Advantages of Multi-Tasking Operating System
• Multiple Programs can be executed simultaneously in Multi-
Tasking Operating System.
• It comes with proper memory management.
Disadvantages of Multi-Tasking Operating System
• The system gets heated in case of heavy programs multiple times.
5. Time-Sharing Operating System
Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work
smoothly. Each user gets the time of the CPU as they use a single
system. These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The task
can be from a single user or different users also. The time that each task
gets to execute is called quantum. After this time interval is over OS
switches over to the next task.
Advantages of Time-Sharing OS
• Each task gets an equal opportunity.
• Fewer chances of duplication of software.
• CPU idle time can be reduced.
• Resource Sharing: Time-sharing systems allow multiple users to
share hardware resources such as the CPU, memory, and
peripherals, reducing the cost of hardware and increasing
efficiency.
• Improved Productivity: Time-sharing allows users to work
concurrently, thereby reducing the waiting time for their turn to
use the computer. This increased productivity translates to more
work getting done in less time.
• Improved User Experience: Time-sharing provides an interactive
environment that allows users to communicate with the computer
in real time, providing a better user experience than batch
processing.
Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS
• Reliability problem.
• One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user
programs and data.
• Data communication problem.
• High Overhead: Time-sharing systems have a higher overhead
than other operating systems due to the need for scheduling,
context switching, and other overheads that come with
supporting multiple users.
• Complexity: Time-sharing systems are complex and require
advanced software to manage multiple users simultaneously. This
complexity increases the chance of bugs and errors.
• Security Risks: With multiple users sharing resources, the risk of
security breaches increases. Time-sharing systems require careful
management of user access, authentication, and authorization to
ensure the security of data and software.
6. Distributed Operating System
These types of operating system is a recent advancement in the world
of computer technology and are being widely accepted all over the
world and, that too, at a great pace. Various autonomous
interconnected computers communicate with each other using a shared
communication network. Independent systems possess their own
memory unit and CPU. These are referred to as loosely coupled systems
or distributed systems. These systems’ processors differ in size and
function. The major benefit of working with these types of the
operating system is that it is always possible that one user can access
the files or software which are not actually present on his system but
some other system connected within this network i.e., remote access is
enabled within the devices connected in that network.
Advantages of Distributed Operating System
• Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as
all systems are independent of each other.
• Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed.
• Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and
durable.
• Load on host computer reduces.
• These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily
added to the network.
• Delay in data processing reduces.
Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System
• Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication.
• To establish distributed systems the language is used not well-
defined yet.
• These types of systems are not readily available as they are very
expensive. Not only that the underlying software is highly complex
and not understood well yet.
Examples of Distributed Operating Systems are LOCUS, etc.
7. Network Operating System
These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage
data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking
functions. These types of operating systems allow shared access to files,
printers, security, applications, and other networking functions over a
small private network. One more important aspect of Network
Operating Systems is that all the users are well aware of the underlying
configuration, of all other users within the network, their individual
connections, etc. and that’s why these computers are popularly known
as tightly coupled systems.
Advantages of Network Operating System
• Highly stable centralized servers.
• Security concerns are handled through servers.
• New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily
integrated into the system.
• Server access is possible remotely from different locations and
types of systems.
Disadvantages of Network Operating System
• Servers are costly.
• User has to depend on a central location for most operations.
• Maintenance and updates are required regularly.
Examples of Network Operating Systems are Microsoft Windows
Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X,
Novell NetWare, BSD, etc.
8. Real-Time Operating System
These types of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval required
to process and respond to inputs is very small. This time interval is
called response time. Real-time systems are used when there are time
requirements that are very strict like missile systems, air traffic control
systems, robots, etc.
Hard Real-Time Systems: Hard Real-Time OSs are meant for
applications where time constraints are very strict and even the
shortest possible delay is not acceptable. These systems are built for
saving life like automatic parachutes or airbags which are required to be
readily available in case of an accident. Virtual memory is rarely found
in these systems.
Soft Real-Time Systems: These OSs are for applications where time-
constraint is less strict.
Advantages of RTOS
• Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and
 systems, thus more output from all the resources.
• Task Shifting: The time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems
is very less. For example, in older systems, it takes about 10
microseconds in shifting from one task to another, and in the
latest systems, it takes 3 microseconds.
• Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less
importance on applications that are in the queue.
• Real-time operating system in the embedded system: Since the
size of programs is small, RTOS can also be used in embedded
systems like in transport and others.
• Error Free: These types of systems are error-free.
• Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these
types of systems.
Disadvantages of RTOS
• Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their
concentration is very less on a few applications to avoid errors.
• Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are
not so good and they are expensive as well.
• Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult
for the designer to write on.
• Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers
and interrupts signal to respond earliest to interrupts.
• Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these
systems are very less prone to switching tasks.
Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are Scientific experiments,
medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems,
robots, air traffic control systems, etc.