CHAPTER THREE

FOOD SECURITY
This involves provision of adequate food for use at household and country level.
People are considered food secure when they have availability and adequate access at all times to
sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life

Components /Elements of Food Security

i) Food availability:Food must be available in sufficient quantities and on a
consistent basis.It considers stock and production in a given area and the capacity to
bring in food from elsewhere, through trade or aid.
ii) Food access: People must be able to regularly acquire adequate quantities of food,
through purchase, home production, barter, gifts, borrowing or food aid.
iii) Food utilization/consumption:Consumed food must have a positive nutritional
impact on people. It entails cooking, storage and hygiene practices, individuals
‘health, water and sanitations, feeding and sharing practices within the
household.
iv) Food Stability/ food supply- Food stability refers to the ability to obtain food over
time. People cannot be considered food secure until they feel so and they do not feel
food secure until there is stability of availability, accessibility and proper utilization
condition.

Levels of food security.

i) Global level food security - relates to whether global supplies are sufficient to meet
aggregate global requirements. There are roughly 1 billion hungry people in the
world, heavily concentrated in poor countries
ii) National level food security - is based on a similar comparison of aggregate supplies
and aggregate requirements at the national level. Of course, international trade can
influence these national outcomes without necessarily changing global balances.
iii) Household level food security - refers to having access to adequate food at all times
iv) Individual level food security- is about the distribution of food within the household.
When the household is short of food, individual members may be affected differently

Determinants of Food Fecurity

They can be categorised into;
➢ Socio-economic factors
➢ Political factors
➢ Environmental factors

These include; (Factors Influencing Food Security)

 • Weather conditions; when rains are adequate, farmers produce adequate food
for consumption
• Income levels;- when families have a good income, they are able to buy the food
required
• Infrastructure;- good infrastructure make transportation of food easy and fast
• Storage facilities
• Availability of loans and credit facilities;- this motivates farmers to produce more food
• Use of mordern scientific methods of farming;- high breeds of seed and animal
husbandry, leads to high yields

Food preservation and storage

Definition
Preservation is the proper treatment of foods so that it can last for a longer period without going
bad.

The Principles of Food Preservation

1. Prevention or delay of microbial decomposition
• By keeping out microorganisms (asepsis)
• By removal of microorganisms
• By hindering the growth and activity of microorganisms (e.g. by low
temperatures, drying, anaerobic conditions, or chemicals)
• By killing the microorganisms (e.g. by heat or radiation)
2. Prevention or delay of self decomposition of the food
• By destruction or inactivation of food enzymes (by blanching)
• By prevention or delay of chemical reactions (By using antioxidant)

Food Preservation Methods

Food, by nature, is perishable. Without intervention, food falls victim to the forces of nature,
namely bacteria, yeast, and fungus, and begin to degrade. The effects of food spoilage are not only
unappetizing, but the agents of spoilage can also cause foodborne illnesses or even death.
For thousands of years, humans have been using various methods to prolong the freshness and
safety of their food to stabilize their food supply.

Here are a few of the most common ways to preserve food:

i. Drying Food / dehydration:
Drying keeps all the germs and bacteria’s away from the food as the water content is low.
Common ways of drying include:
• Sun drying – grains and beans can be used for preservation under this method.
• Air drying – it can be done to preserve herbs like summer savory, sage,
rosemary, thyme. Make bundles of the herbs and let them dry in the air (indoor)
• Oven drying
• Dehydrating
 • Smoking – it helps in preserving meat and seafood

ii. Canning.
Canning preserves food by removing the oxygen needed for most microorganisms to grow.
This is the process in which food is sealed in airtight containers; it helps in keeping away
bacteria, unwanted enzymes and oxygen that can destroy the food.Canning food preservation
can be done in two ways:
• Pressure canning
• Water-bath canning

iii. Pickling:
It’s a process that is used to store food by using vinegar or salt brine. It involves processes of
fermentation. It is an ideal way to preserve vegetables and fruits in jars and enjoy them whenever
you want.

iv. Salting:
Salting preserves food by removing the moisture and creating an environment unsuitable for
microbial growth. Very few bacteria grow in high salt solutions, so simply adding a very high
amount of salt can be an effective method of preservation

v. Boiling
Boiling liquid food items can kill any existing microbes. Milk and water are often boiled to kill
any harmful microbes that may be present in them.

vi. Chilling and Freezing/cold storage or use of refrigeneration

Bacteria and yeast grow best at specific temperatures, usually between 40-140ºF. By lowering
the temperature below 40ºF their metabolic and reproductive action is significantly slowed.
While this may not kill the bacteria and yeast, it does slow the spoilage process

vii. Burial
Burying food storage method includes controlling the oxygen flow and light. It is a way of
storing the food at low temperature in a natural way

viii. Fermenting
The bacteria or yeast used in the fermentation process produce acid as a byproduct, which acts to
prevents other, potentially harmful bacteria from thriving.

FOOD HANDLING METHODS AND RELATIONSHIP WITH POST HARVEST LOSSES

1. Contamination Prevention: Contamination can occur due to improper storage, inadequate
hygiene practices, or exposure to pests and pathogens during handling and transportation.
2. Temperature Control: Maintaining appropriate temperatures during handling, storage, and
transportation is essential for preserving the quality and freshness of perishable foods.
 Improper temperature control can accelerate spoilage and increase post-harvest losses.
3. Hygiene Practices: Hygienic food handling practices, such as handwashing, sanitizing
equipment, and using clean storage containers, help minimize the risk of microbial
contamination. Contaminated food is more prone to spoilage, resulting in increased post-
harvest losses.
4. Packaging and Storage: Proper packaging and storage methods can extend the shelf life of
food products and reduce losses. Adequate packaging protects food from physical damage,
moisture loss, and exposure to air, which can cause deterioration and spoilage.
5. Handling Techniques: Gentle handling techniques during harvesting, sorting, and packing
help prevent physical damage to fruits and vegetables, reducing the risk of bruising and decay.
Rough handling can accelerate deterioration and increase losses.
6. Supply Chain Efficiency: Efficient handling practices throughout the supply chain, including
transportation and distribution, help minimize delays and reduce the time between harvest and
consumption. Prompt delivery to markets or processing facilities reduces the likelihood of
spoilage and waste.
7. Training and Education: Providing training and education to farmers, producers, and food
handlers on proper handling practices is crucial for minimizing post-harvest losses. Awareness
of best practices can lead to improved handling techniques and reduced waste.

Stakeholders in Food Security

1. Governments: Governments play a central role in shaping policies, regulations, and strategies
to address food security challenges. They are responsible for creating an enabling environment
for agricultural development, implementing food safety standards, providing infrastructure
support, and establishing social safety nets to ensure access to food for vulnerable populations.
2. Agricultural Producers: Agricultural producers contribute to food security by adopting
sustainable farming practices, improving crop yields, diversifying production, and managing
natural resources responsibly.
3. International Organizations: International organizations such as the United Nations Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Food Programme (WFP), and World Bank play a
significant role in addressing global food security challenges. These organizations provide
technical assistance, funding, and policy guidance to support food security initiatives in
countries around the world.
4. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): NGOs play a vital role in implementing food
security programs and initiatives, particularly at the community level. They often work directly
with vulnerable populations to address hunger, malnutrition, and food insecurity through
various interventions such as food aid, nutrition education, agricultural training, and advocacy
for policy change.
5. Consumers: Their food choices, purchasing behaviors, and dietary patterns have implications
for food production, distribution, and access. Educating consumers about healthy eating habits,
nutrition, and sustainable food consumption can contribute to improved food security outcomes
by promoting balanced diets and reducing food waste.
6. Private Sector: The private sector, including food retailers, processors, distributors, and
agribusinesses, plays a significant role in food production, distribution, and market
development. Private sector investments in agriculture, infrastructure, technology, and
innovation can contribute to increased productivity, efficiency, and resilience in food systems.
 CHAPTER FOUR
MATERNAL CHILD HEALTH AND FAMILY PLANNING

Pregnancy
Pregnancy, also known as gestation, is the time during which one or more offspring develops
inside a woman.
Conception is the moment when egg and sperm meet.

Conception Process: From Egg to Embryo

• Ovulation
Each month, one of a woman's two ovaries releases a mature egg in a process known
as ovulation. Ovulation occurs about two weeks after the start of a woman's last menstrual
period.
• Moving Into the Fallopian Tube
The released egg travels into the Fallopian tube, where it is fertilized by a single sperm.
Once a sperm has penetrated the egg, the egg surface changes, preventing entry of other
sperm. Fertilization completes the genetic makeup of the baby, including whether it will be
a girl or boy.
• The Cells Start to Divide
Once the egg is fertilized, a rapid process of division begins. The fertilized egg leaves the
Fallopian tube and enters the uterus 3 to 4 days after fertilization.
• Implantation
Implantation is the process by which the fertilized egg attaches to the endometrium (lining
tissues of the uterus). The cells in the fertilized egg continue to divide.
• Pregnancy Hormones
A hormone called human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) is produced by the cells that will
eventually form the placenta. It can be found in the mother's blood within about a week of
conception and is detected in pregnancy tests done on blood or urine.
• Fetal Development
After implantation in the uterus, some of the cells form the placenta while others form the
embryo. The heartbeat begins during the fifth week of gestation. At the eighth week the
developing embryo is now called a fetus. The fetus at eight weeks is about ½ inch long and
constantly growing

Antenatal Care
Antenatal care is the care you receive from healthcare professionals during your pregnancy. This
care can be provided by a team that can include a doctor, a midwife, and usually with a doctor
who specialises in pregnancy and birth (an obstetrician).
At this first visit, you will be given information about:
 • Folic acid and vitamin D supplements
• Nutrition, diet and food hygiene
• Lifestyle factors that may affect your health or the health of your unborn baby,
such as smoking, recreational drug use and drinking alcohol
• Antenatal screening tests
Later visits are usually quite short. Your midwife or doctor will:
• Check your urine and blood pressure
• Feel your abdomen (tummy) to check the baby’s position
• Measure your uterus (womb) to check your baby’s growth
• Listen to your baby’s heartbeat if you want them to.

Problems during Pregnancy and how to manage them

• Morning Sickness –It is caused by rapidly changing hormone levels. Timely meals
and avoiding food that act as a trigger can help reduce or manage morning sickness.
• Fatigue –. A prenatal test to detect anaemia should be done. A healthy, nutritious diet
must be taken during the nine months.
• Constipation and Haemorrhoids –. Increased pressure to the rectum and perineum
cause indigestion and irregular bowel movements which result in constipation.. You
should ensure that you have adequate amounts of fibre in your diet and drink plenty of
water
• Bleeding Gums – As the blood flow increases during pregnancy, gums may become
spongy resulting in bleeding. Extra care and regular checkups with the dentist can help
avoid it.
• Heartburn and Indigestion – It is mainly caused due to the pressure on the intestines.
Small meals at regular intervals can help avoid the problem.
• Back-ache–As the months pass by weight of a pregnant woman increases, balance
changes, and the center of her gravity is pulled forward straining her back. Loosening
pelvic joints also contribute to back-ache. Changing positions slowly as well as
standing with support is necessary for back support. To avoid or reduce backache, avoid
lifting heavy weights, wearing high-heeled shoes or standing for too long
• Faintness and dizziness
This arises from low blood pressure. Avoid long periods of standing, getting up too
quickly and overheating, especially in the bath
• Sleeplessness and Tiredness - It is common to feel tired and exhausted during your
pregnancy. This could be due to anxiety, heartburn, and your baby pressing on your
bladder or sheer bulk, making it difficult to get a good night’s sleep. A hot milky drink
and a warm shower may help you relax and try to get as much rest as possible. Avoid
caffeinated drinks as caffeine can make it harder to go to sleep.
• Headaches –. Proper food intake and rest help resolve headaches.
• Vaginal Secretions - Vaginal discharge during pregnancy is normal. The discharge is
usually clear and white, and should not smell unpleasant. If the discharge is coloured or
smells strange, or you feel itchy or sore, you will need to consult a doctor as you may
be having vaginal infection.
• Incontinence - This can be due to the extra weight and pressure of your baby pressing on
 your bladder and pelvic floor, especially when you laugh, sneeze or run. Regular pelvic
floor exercises during and after pregnancy will help.

LABOUR AND DELIVERY

Stages of Labor:
Childbirth usually occurs in three stages:
• First stage: The time of the onset of true labor until the cervix is completely dilated to 10
cm.
• Second stage: The period after the cervix is dilated to 10 cm until the baby is delivered.
• Third stage: Delivery of the placenta

1. First Stage of Labor

The first stage of labor is the longest and involves three phases:
Early Labor Phase –The time of the onset of labor until the cervix is dilated to 3 cm.
Active Labor Phase – Continues from 3 cm. until the cervix is dilated to 7 cm.
Transition Phase – Continues from 7 cm. until the cervix is fully dilated to 10 cm.

2. The Second Stage

The second stage of childbirth involves pushing and the delivery of your baby. Until this point,
your body has been doing all the work for you. Now that your cervix has fully dilated to 10 cm,
it is time for you to help by pushing.
• You will have a strong natural urge to push.
• You will feel strong pressure at your rectum.
3. Third Stage: Delivery of your Placenta.
The third stage is the delivery of the placenta and is the shortest stage. The time it takes to
deliver your placenta can range from 5 to 30 minutes.

Post- partum care

POSTNATAL CARE
It includes;
• Hygiene
• Diet
• Exercise
• Breastfeeding
• Immunization
• Growth and monitoring
• Family planning
a) Postnatal hygiene
The postnatal period is a very vulnerable time for the mother since she is prone to various
infections.
• Washing hands - Wash your hands before you eat, after washing the infant's clothes
and after a trip to the toilet.
• Toilet hygiene - Frequent urination after childbirth leads to infection if not cleaned
 properly and promptly. A way to ensure postnatal hygiene is to clean the genital area
with warm water from front to back and pat dry.
• Stay hydrated- During the postnatal period, there is an urge to urinate frequently as the
body gets rid of the extra water accumulated during pregnancy. A postnatal hygiene tip to
prevent or reduce bladder infection is to drink lots of water
• Maintain breast hygiene It is essential to maintain the hygiene of your breasts as any
infection may also spread to the baby. Rinsing your breasts in water after breastfeeding
• Perinea care The tear and stitches in the perinea will take some time to heal. During
this period, you must take utmost care to maintain postnatal hygiene by washing this
area twice or more with water, perhaps with some dilute antiseptic.
• Postnatal bleeding care-After childbirth you will have some heavy bleeding like a
menstrual flow, which might last up to two weeks. Ensure postnatal care by cleaning the
intimate areas and changing the sanitary pads 2 or 3 times a day.
• After a caesarean After a caesarean delivery, extra care must be taken to ensure
postnatal hygiene. Remember to keep the stitches and naval area clean. Take care not to
put pressure on the stitches while holding the baby or feeding.
• Rest and exercise It is normal to feel exhausted after childbirth. Among the postnatal
care advised for new mothers, the most essential is rest. Make sure to get enough sleep
and also do some postnatal exercises as advised by your doctor.
• Food hygiene You must also make sure to eat hygienic food. Wash all the fruits and
vegetables properly and ensure the food is cooked fully before eating.
• Visitor’s hygiene - Both the mother and the baby can pick up infections from visiting
friends and family and it is advisable to limit their number to prevent you or your
baby from getting any infections.

b) Post natal diet

Advise the woman to eat a greater amount and variety of healthy foods, to help her feel strong
and well. Such as;
• Fruits and vegetables
• Whole grains
• Lean protein, like fish, beef, and soy foods
• Dairy — choose skim or low-fat milk
• Leafy greens
• Iron, especially if you suffer from postpartum symptoms. You can find this in things
like fortified cereals, prune juice, and lean meats.
• Vitamin C, which can help with wound healing for mothers who delivered via C-section.
Find this in oranges, tomatoes, and natural fruit juices.

c) Postnatal exercise
Vigorous stretching should be avoided too. Recommended postnatal exercise includes:
• Brisk walking • Low-impact aerobic workouts
• Swimming • Light weight training
• Aqua-aerobics • Cycling
• Yoga
d) Breastfeeding
Breastfeeding, also known as nursing, is the feeding of babies and young children with milk
from a woman's breast. Health professionals recommend that breastfeeding begin within the
first hour of a baby's life and continue as often and as much as the baby wants
Exclusive breastfeeding is recommended up to 6 months of age, with continued breastfeeding
along with appropriate complementary foods up to two years of age or beyond.

The Benefits of Breastfeeding the Baby

• Breast milk provides the ideal nutrition for infants. It has a nearly perfect mix of
vitamins, protein, and fat -- everything your baby needs to grow. And it's all provided in a
form more easily digested than infant formula.
• Breast milk contains antibodies that help your baby fight off viruses and bacteria.
Breastfeeding lowers your baby's risk of having asthma or allergies.
• Babies who are breastfed exclusively for the first 6 months, without any formula,
have fewer ear infections, respiratory illnesses, and bouts of diarrhea. They also
have fewer hospitalizations and trips to the doctor.
• Breastfeeding has been linked to higher IQ scores in later childhood
• The physical closeness, skin-to-skin touching, and eye contact all help your baby bond
with you and feel secure.
• Breastfed infants are more likely to gain the right amount of weight as they grow rather than
become overweight children.
• Breastfeeding also plays a role in the prevention of SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome).
It's been thought to lower the risk of diabetes, obesity, and certain cancers as well

Breastfeeding Benefits for the Mother

• Breastfeeding burns extra calories, so it can help you lose pregnancy weight faster.
• It releases the hormone oxytocin, which helps your uterus return to its pre-pregnancy size
and may reduce uterine bleeding after birth.
• Breastfeeding also lowers your risk of breast and ovarian cancer. It may lower your risk
of osteoporosis (weak fragile bones).
• Since you don't have to buy and measure formula, sterilize nipples, or warm bottles, it
saves you time and money.
• It also gives you regular time to relax quietly with your newborn as you bond

e) Immunization
Immunization is the process whereby a person is made immune or resistant to an infectious
disease, typically by the administration of a vaccine. Vaccines stimulate the body’s own immune
system to protect the person against subsequent infection or disease.
Importance of immunizatiion
• Reduces child mortality
• Improves health of the child
• It reduces wastage of money. It cheaper to immunize achild than to treat the disease
• It givesthe child protection against diseases and infections

Immunizable diseases
Tuberculosis, whooping cough, diptheria, tetanus, measles and polio are common (diseases)
in children, and can cause suffering, disability and sometimes death.
Tuberculosis – birth – BCG
Diphtheria and pertussis (whooping cough), tetanus – 3 injections 6,10,14 th week – DPT
VACCINE
Polio – birth, 6,10, 14 th week – polio drops
Measles – 9th month -

f) Growth and development

Growth refers to increase in the physical size of the body and Development refers to
increase in skills and functions. Both are considered together. because a child grows and
develops as a whole include not only physical aspect but also intellectual, emotional and
social aspects.

Factors Influencing The Growth And Development :-

• Genetic inheritance
• Nutrition
• Age
• Sex
• Physical surroundings
• Psychological factors
• Infections and parasites
• Economic factors

Growth Monitoring
This involves assessing of growth and development of the children in order to find out
whether they have acquired the milestones expected of their age e.g language ability,
knowledge of the environment, abilities like walking, running, skipping, balancing

Growth promotion
Refers to providing for the total needs of children in order to ensure that they grow and
develop properly eg quality care, balanced diet, good health care, clean and safe
environment to promote exploration, observetion ets