Temperature ICs (Integrated Circuits) are compact sensors used to measure temperature.

They come
in both analog and digital forms.

❖ Analog Temperature ICs: These sensors produce a voltage output that is proportional to the
temperature. They are known for their low power consumption, good linearity, and accuracy.
❖ Digital Temperature ICs: These sensors have built-in analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) and
provide a digital output. They offer high accuracy, low power consumption, and can
communicate via interfaces like I2C or SPI2.

Temperature ICs are widely used in applications such as computers (to control CPU temperature),
telecommunications devices, and industrial equipment.

1.Brief about thermistor

What is a Thermistor?

A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined as a type of resistor whose electrical resistance varies
with changes in temperature. Although all resistors’ resistance will fluctuate slightly with
temperature, a thermistor is particularly sensitive to temperature changes.

Two main types:

❖ NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient): Resistance decreases as temperature rises.

Common in everyday devices like thermostats and car engine sensors.
❖ PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient): Resistance increases as temperature rises. Often
used as current-limiting devices in circuits.
Working Principle

The thermistor is used for measuring temperature. The working principle behind the
temperature measurement is its resistance.

A thermistor is made of semiconductor material whose resistance greatly depends on the

surrounding temperature. They significantly vary with the temperature. Depending on the
material used, the resistance may either increase or decrease with an increase in temperature
called the PTC and NTC thermistor.

This change in resistance can be calibrated and measured to calculate the exact temperature of
the environment in a circuit.

For accurate measurement, It is necessary to have maximum surface contact with the
component or equipment. To maximize the thermal conductivity between the surfaces, special
thermal paste is used between them.

To understand the basic difference between PTC and NTC thermistors we can use this linear
equation for the relation between the change in temperature and resistance.

dR = k dT

Where

dR = Change in resistance

k = Temperature Coefficient

dT = Change in Temperature

The temperature coefficient can be either positive or negative and it completely changes the
electrical property of the component. A thermistor having a positive coefficient is called PTC
while a negative coefficient thermistor is called NTC.
Types of Thermistors based on Material

The thermistor can be shaped into three different types. Therefore, they are divided into the
following types:

1. Bead Thermistor
2. Disc and Chip Style thermistor
3. Cylindrical Thermistor
4. Metalized surface thermistor

2. Resistance Temperature Detector or RTD

What is an RTD?

An RTD or resistance thermometer stands for resistance temperature detector that is used for
measuring the change in temperature by measuring the variation in resistance over the
temperature range. It can be described as a temperature transducer that converts heat energy
into some other form of energy.

Resistance temperature detectors are usually detectors of wire resistance temperature that are
made up of platinum, nickel, or resistance wire elements. The flexibility of choosing their
configuration and shape makes them an easy-to-use device. It shows good linear characteristics
over a range of temperatures which makes it predictable and useful. There are some other
transducers as well like a thermocouple or a thermistor. Each can be used depending on the
need.

Construction of Resistance Temperature Detector

The construction of RTD involves wrapping the resistance wire on mica base. The wire is wrapped
in a way to minimize the inductance between each turn of the coil. The whole coil is encased by a
stainless-steel case in order to protect the wiring. The ending of the wire terminates into leads
Usually the material that are employed to make RTDs should have positive temperature
coefficient meaning their resistance should rise with increase in temperature. This means that
metals that show linear characteristics should be used some of these materials are Copper,
Nickel and Platinum.

Working of an RTD

The RTD device works on the principle that the resistance of a conductor changes due to a
change in temperature. As we know the resistance of a given conductor having length “l” & area
“a” is given by;

R=ρl/a

Where,

R = Resistance of the wire

ρ = Resistivity of the material

l = length of wire

a = cross-sectional area of the wire

ρ is the resistivity of the material which is measured in ohm-cm. It depends on the type of
material as well as its temperature. Since the length & the area of the wire remains constant
throughout RTD operation, the resistance becomes the function of only temperature. Therefore,
the resistance of a metal at a given temperature ’t’ is given by

Rt = Ro (1 + αt)

Where,

Rt = Resistance at temperature t

Ro = Resistance at a reference temperature

α = coefficient of temperature
 The resistance value depends on α, the coefficient of temperature. It is different for different
metals. Therefore, such metals are best suited for the RTD element that has the highest α value.

Types

Thin Film RTDs: Made by depositing a thin layer of platinum on a ceramic or glass substrate.
They're compact and have a fast response time.

Wire-Wound RTDs: Consist of a platinum wire wound around a ceramic or glass core. Known for
high accuracy and stability, especially at higher temperatures.

Coiled RTDs: Similar to wire-wound, but the wire is coiled loosely within a protective sheath,
allowing for better flexibility and reduced stress.

Advantages of RTDs:

❖ High Accuracy: Great for precise temperature measurements.

❖ Excellent Stability: Retain accuracy over time.

❖ Wide Temperature Range: Suitable for extreme temperatures.

❖ Repeatability: Consistently accurate across multiple readings.

Disadvantages of RTDs:

❖ Cost: Generally, more expensive than other sensors.

❖ Fragility: Can be delicate, especially thin-film RTDs.

❖ Slower Response Time: Typically, slower than thermocouples.

❖ Power Requirements: Need a power source for operation.

Application of RTDs

1. Industrial Processes: Monitoring and controlling temperatures in manufacturing processes.

2. Medical Devices: Ensuring precise temperature control in medical equipment like incubators
and dialysis machines.
3. Aerospace: Keeping a close watch on temperatures in aircraft engines and other critical
systems.
4. HVAC Systems: Maintaining optimal temperatures in heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning systems.
5. Automotive: Monitoring engine temperatures and other critical points in vehicles.

3. Thermocouple
Definition: The thermocouple is a temperature measuring device. It uses for measuring the
temperature at one particular point. In other words, it is a type of sensor used for measuring the
temperature in the form of an electric current or the EMF.

The thermocouple consists two wires of different metals which are welded together at the ends. The
welded portion was creating the junction where the temperature is used to be measured. The
variation in temperature of the wire induces the voltages.

Working Principle of Thermocouple

The working principle of the thermocouple depends on the three effects.

See back Effect – The See back effect occurs between two different metals. When the heat provides
to any one of the metal, the electrons start flowing from hot metal to cold metal. Thus, direct current
induces in the circuit.

thermocouple-instrument

In short, it is a phenomenon in which the temperature difference between the two different metals
induces the potential differences between them. The See beck effect produces small voltages for per
Kelvin of temperature.

Peltier Effect – The Peltier effect is the inverse of the Seebeck effect. The Peltier effect state that the
temperature difference can be created between any two different conductors by applying the
potential difference between them.

Thompson Effect – The Thompson effect state that when two dissimilar metals join together and if
they create two junctions then the voltage induces the entire length of the conductor because of the
temperature gradient. The temperature gradient is a physical term which shows the direction and
rate of change of temperature at a particular location.

Working of Thermocouple

The circuit of the thermocouple is shown in the figure below. The circuit consists two dissimilar
metals. These metals are joined together in such a manner that they are creating two junctions. The
metals are bounded to the junction through welding.
Let the P and Q are the two junctions of the thermocouples. The T1 and T2 are the temperatures at
the junctions. As the temperature of the junctions is different from each other, the EMF generates in
the circuit.

If the temperature at the junction becomes equal, the equal and opposite EMF generates in the
circuit, and the zero current flows through it. If the temperatures of the junction become unequal,
the potential difference induces in the circuit. The magnitude of the EMF induces in the circuit
depends on the types of material used for making the thermocouple. The total current flowing
through the circuit is measured through the measuring devices.

The EMF induces in the thermocouple circuit is given by the equation

Where Δθ – temperature difference between the hot thermocouple junction and the reference
thermocouple junction.

a, b – constants

Advantages of Thermocouple

The following are the advantages of the thermocouples.

❖ The thermocouple is cheaper than the other temperature measuring devices.

❖ The thermocouple has the fast response time.

❖ It has a wide temperature range.

Disadvantages of the Thermocouples

❖ The thermocouple has low accuracy.

 ❖ The recalibration of the thermocouple is difficult.

Nickel-alloy, platinum/rhodium alloy, Tungsten/rhenium-alloy, chromel-gold, iron-alloy are the name

of the alloys used for making the thermocouple.

5.Non-contact temperature sensors

Infrared (IR) Thermometers: Measure the infrared radiation emitted by an object to determine its
temperature.

Optical Pyrometers: Use optical techniques to measure high temperatures, especially in industrial
settings.

Thermal Imagers: Create visual images showing temperature variations across surfaces.

Fiber Optic Sensors: Use fiber optics to measure temperature, useful in environments with strong
electromagnetic fields.