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The term "drama" comes from a Greek word meaning "deed" or "act" The earliest origins of drama are to
be found in Athens where ancient hymns, called dithyrambs, were sung in honor of the god Dionysus. These
hymns were later adapted for choral processions in which participants would dress up in costumes and
masks. Eventually, certain members of the chorus evolved to take special roles within the procession, but
they were not yet actors in the way we would understand it.
That development came later in the 6th century BC, when the tyrant Pisistratus, who then ruled the city,
established a series of new public festivals. One of these, the 'City Dionysia', a festival of entertainment
held in honor of the god Dionysus, featured competitions in music, singing, dance and poetry. And most
remarkable of all the winners was said to be a wandering bard called Thespis.
According to tradition, in 534 or 535 BC, Thespis astounded audiences by leaping on to the back of a
wooden cart and reciting poetry as if he was the characters whose lines he was reading. In doing so he
became the world's first actor, and it is from him that we get the world thespian.
Scholars differ on the scanty evidence about Thespis and his role in the development of Greek drama.
According to the Greek rhetorician Themistius (4th century AD), Aristotle said that tragedy was entirely
choral until Thespis introduced the prologue and the internal speeches. If so, Thespis was the first to
interweave choral song with an actor’s speeches, and tragic dialogue began when the actor (Thespis)
exchanged words with the leader of the chorus (choragus).

The Dionysia was a large festival in ancient Athens in honor of the god Dionysus, the central events of
which were the theatrical performances of dramatic tragedies and, from 487 BC, comedies. It was the
second-most important festival after the Panathenaia. The Panathenaic Games were held every four years
in Athens in Ancient Greece from 566 BC to the 3rd century AD. These Games incorporated religious
festival, ceremony (including prize-giving), athletic competitions, and cultural events hosted within
a stadium.
The Panathenaic games were a chrematitic ('monetary') event were the winner would take home prizes with
a monetary value, as opposed to stephanitic ('crowned') games like the Olympics which awarded the winner
with only a crown.

Dramatic performances
Following the procession, the Theatre of Dionysus was purified by the sacrifice of a bull. According to
tradition, the first performance of tragedy at the Dionysia was by the playwright and actor Thespis (from
whom we take the word "thespian") in 534 BC. His award was reportedly a goat, a common symbol for
Dionysus, and this "prize" possibly suggests the origin of the word "tragedy" (which means "goat-song").
During the fifth century BC, five days of the festival were set aside for performance, though scholars
disagree exactly what was presented each day. At least three full days were devoted to tragic plays, and
each of three playwrights presented his set of three tragedies and one satyr play on the successive days.
Most of the extant Greek tragedies, including those of Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles, were
performed at the Theatre of Dionysus.
The other two days of the festival were likely devoted to dithyrambic contests until 487/6 BC, when comic
poets were officially admitted to the agons and eligible for their own prizes. Until 449 BC, only dramatic
works were awarded prizes in the agon, but after that time, actors also became eligible for recognition. It
was considered a great honour to win the comedic prize at the City Dionysia, despite the belief that comedies
were of secondary importance.
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The three genres of drama were comedy, satyr plays, and most important of all, tragedy.

Comedy: The first comedies were mainly satirical and mocked men in power for their vanity and
foolishness. The first master of comedy was the playwright Aristophanes. Much later Menander wrote
comedies about ordinary people and made his plays more like sit-coms.
Tragedy: Tragedy dealt with the big themes of love, loss, pride, the abuse of power and the fraught
relationships between men and gods. Typically the main protagonist of a tragedy commits some terrible
crime without realizing how foolish and arrogant he has been. Then, as he slowly realizes his error, the
world crumbles around him. The three great playwrights of tragedy were Aeschylus, Sophocles, and
Euripides.
Aristotle argued that tragedy cleansed the heart through pity and terror, purging us of our petty concerns
and worries by making us aware that there can be nobility in suffering. He called this experience 'catharsis'.

Satyr Plays: These short plays were performed between the acts of tragedies and made fun of the plight of
the tragedy's characters. The satyrs were mythical half-human, half-goat figures and actors in these plays
wore large phalluses for comic effect. Few examples of these plays survive. They are classified by some
authors as tragicomic, or comedy dramas.
THE GREEK THEATRE

Nearly every Greek and Roman city of note had an open-air theater, the seats arranged in tiers with a lovely
view of the surrounding landscape. Here the Greeks sat and watched the plays. An indispensable element
of every urban centre from the Classical period onwards, theatres were set in the centre of political, social
and religious life: the acropolis, the agora, the stadium, the bouleuterion, the sanctuaries. Theatres were
distinguished by their simplicity of design, with a circular or semicircular seating layout, which, combined
with the height difference between the tiers, achieved a unique combination of an unimpeded view and
excellent acoustics. The seats of the cavea were usually adapted to the side of a natural hill, its centre dug
out of the earth or rock and banked up on the sides, while in some cases, albeit rare, an artificial elevation
was created on level ground in order to form the basis of the cavea seating.

Greek plays were performed in an outdoor theater, used masks, and were almost always performed by a
chorus and three actors (no matter how many speaking characters there were in the play, only three actors
were used; the actors would go back stage after playing one character, switch masks and costumes, and
reappear as another character). Greek plays were performed as part of religious festivals in honor of the god
Dionysus, and unless later revived, were performed only once. Plays were funded by the polis, and always
presented in competition with other plays, and were voted either the first, second, or third (last) place.
Tragedies almost exclusively dealt with stories from the mythic past (there was no "contemporary" tragedy),
comedies almost exclusively with contemporary figures and problems.
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Greek tragedies and comedies were always performed in outdoor theaters. Early Greek theaters were
probably little more than open areas in city centers or next to hillsides where the audience, standing or
sitting, could watch and listen to the chorus singing about the exploits of a god or hero. From the late 6th
century BC to the 4th and 3rd centuries BC there was a gradual evolution towards more elaborate theater
structures, but the basic layout of the Greek theater remained the same. The major components of Greek
theater are labled on the diagram above.

Orchestra: The orchestra (literally, "dancing space") was normally circular. It was a level space where the
chorus would dance, sing, and interact with the actors who were on the stage near the skene. The earliest
orchestras were simply made of hard earth, but in the Classical period some orchestras began to be paved
with marble and other materials. In the center of the orchestra there was often a thymele, or altar. The
orchestra of the theater of Dionysus in Athens was about 60 feet in diameter.

Theatron: The theatron (literally, "viewing-place") is where the spectators sat. The theatron was usually
part of hillside overlooking the orchestra, and often wrapped around a large portion of the orchestra (see
the diagram above). Spectators in the fifth century BC probably sat on cushions or boards, but by the fourth
century the theatron of many Greek theaters had marble seats.

Skene: The skene (literally, "tent") was the building directly behind the stage. During the 5th century, the
stage of the theater of Dionysus in Athens was probably raised only two or three steps above the level of
the orchestra, and was perhaps 25 feet wide and 10 feet deep. The skene was directly in back of the stage,
and was usually decorated as a palace, temple, or other building, depending on the needs of the play. It had
at least one set of doors, and actors could make entrances and exits through them. There was also access to
the roof of the skene from behind, so that actors playing gods and other characters (such as the Watchman
at the beginning of Aeschylus' Agamemnon) could appear on the roof, if needed.

Parodos: The parodoi (literally, "passageways") are the paths by which the chorus and some actors (such
as those representing messengers or people returning from abroad) made their entrances and exits. The
audience also used them to enter and exit the theater before and after the performance.
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The early tragedies had only one actor who would perform in costume and wear a mask, allowing him to
impersonate gods. Here we can see perhaps the link to earlier religious ritual where proceedings might
have been carried out by a priest.

ANCIENT GREEK TRAGEDY

Greek tragedy was a popular and influential form of drama performed in theatres across
ancient Greece from the late 6th century BCE. The most famous playwrights of the genre
were Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides and many of their works were still performed centuries after
their initial premiere. Greek tragedy led to Greek comedy and, together, these genres formed the foundation
upon which all modern theatre is based.

The exact origins of tragedy (tragōida) are debated amongst scholars. Some have linked the rise of the
genre, which began in Athens, to the earlier art form, the lyrical performance of epic poetry. Others suggest
a strong link with the rituals performed in the worship of Dionysos such as the sacrifice of goats - a song
ritual called trag-ōdia - and the wearing of masks. Indeed, Dionysos became known as the god of theatre
and perhaps there is another connection - the drinking rites which resulted in the worshipper losing full
control of their emotions and in effect becoming another person, much as actors (hupokritai) hope to do
when performing. The music and dance of Dionysiac ritual was most evident in the role of the chorus and
the music provided by an aulos player, but rhythmic elements were also preserved in the use of first, trochaic
tetrameter and then iambic trimeter in the delivery of the spoken words.

A Tragedy Play
Sometimes referred to as Attic tragedy, Greek tragedy is an extension of the ancient rites carried out in
honor of Dionysus, and it heavily influenced the theater of ancient Rome and the Renaissance. Tragic plots
were often based upon myths from the oral traditions of archaic epics, and took the form of narratives
presented by actors. Tragedies typically began with a prologue, in which one or more characters introduce
the plot and explain the background to the ensuing story. The prologue is then followed by paraodos, after
which the story unfolds through three or more episodes. The episodes are interspersed by stasima, or choral
interludes that explain or comment on the situation that is developing. The tragedy then ends with an exodus,
which concludes the story.

Performed in an open-air theatre (theatron) such as that of Dionysos in Athens and seemingly open to all
of the male populace (the presence of women is contested), the plot of a tragedy was almost always inspired
by episodes from Greek mythology, which we must remember were often a part of Greek religion. As a
consequence of this serious subject matter, which often dealt with moral right and wrongs, no violence was
permitted on the stage and the death of a character had to be heard from offstage and not seen. Similarly, at
least in the early stages of the genre, the poet could not make comments or political statements through the
play, and the more direct treatment of contemporary events had to wait for the arrival of the less austere
and conventional genre, Greek comedy.

The early tragedies had only one actor who would perform in costume and wear a mask, allowing him the
presumption of impersonating a god. Here we can see perhaps the link to earlier religious ritual where
proceedings might have been carried out by a priest.

Later, the actor would often speak to the leader of the chorus, a group of up to 15 actors who sang and
danced but did not speak. This innovation is credited to Thespis in c. 520 BCE. The actor also changed
costumes during the performance (using a small tent behind the stage, the skēne, which would later develop
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into a monumental façade) and so break the play into distinct episodes. Phrynichos is credited with the idea
of splitting the chorus into different groups to represent men, women, elders, etc. (although all actors on the
stage were in fact male). Eventually, three actors were permitted on stage - a limitation which allowed for
equality between poets in competition. However, a play could have as many non-speaking performers as
required, so, no doubt, plays with greater financial backing could put on a more spectacular production with
finer costumes and sets. Finally, Agathon is credited with adding musical interludes unconnected with the
story itself.

Tragedy in Competition
Besides performance in competition, many plays were copied into scripts for publication and posterity.

The most famous competition for the performance of tragedy was as part of the spring festival of Dionysos
Eleuthereus or the City Dionysia in Athens, but there were many others. Those plays which sought to be
performed in the competitions of a religious festival (agōn) had to go through an audition process judged
by the archon. Only those deemed worthy of the festival would be given the financial backing necessary to
procure a costly chorus and rehearsal time. The archon would also nominate the three chorēgoi, the citizens
who would each be expected to fund the chorus for one of the chosen plays (the state paid the poet and lead
actors). The plays of the three selected poets were judged on the day by a panel and the prize for the winner
of such competitions, besides honour and prestige, was often a bronze tripod cauldron. From 449 BCE there
were also prizes for the leading actors (prōtagōnistēs).

The Writers of Tragedy

Aeschylus, (c. 525 - c. 456 BCE)., was the first tragedian to codify the basic rules of tragic drama. He is
often described as the father of tragedy. He is credited with inventing the trilogy, a series of three tragedies
that tell one long story. Trilogies were often performed in sequence over the course of a day, from sunrise
to sunset. At the end of the last play, a satyr play was staged to revive the spirits of the public after they had
witnessed the heavy events of the tragedy that had preceded it.

Innovative, he added a second actor for minor parts and by including more dialogue into his plays, he
squeezed more drama from the age-old stories so familiar to his audience. As plays were submitted for
competition in groups of four (three tragedies and a satyr-play), Aeschylus often carried on a theme between
plays, creating sequels. One such trilogy is Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers (or Cheoephori),
and The Furies (or Eumenides) known collectively as the Oresteia. Aeschylus is said to have described his
work, consisting of at least 70 plays of which six or seven survive, as 'morsels from the feast of Homer'
(Burn 206).

The second great poet of the genre was Sophocles (c. 496-406 BCE).

Tremendously popular, he added a third actor to the proceedings, increased the chorus to 15 members, broke
the cycle of trilogies (making possible the production of independent dramas), and introduced the concept
of scenery to theater. He employed painted scenery, sometimes even changes of scenery within the play.
Three actors now permitted much more sophistication in terms of plot. One of his most famous works
is Antigone (c. 442 BCE) in which the lead character pays the ultimate price for burying her brother
Polynices against the wishes of King Kreon of Thebes. It is a classic situation of tragedy - the political right
of having the traitor Polynices denied burial rites is contrasted against the moral right of a sister seeking to
lay to rest her brother. Other works include Oedipus the King and The Women of Trāchis, but he in fact
wrote more than 120 plays, of which seven survive.
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The last of the classic tragedy poets was Euripides (c. 484-407 BCE), known for his clever dialogues, fine
choral lyrics and a certain realism in his text and stage presentation. He liked to pose awkward questions
and unsettle the audience with his thought-provoking treatment of common themes. This is probably why,
although he was popular with the public, he won only a few festival competitions. Of around 90 plays, 19
survive, amongst the most famous being Medeia - where Jason, of the Golden Fleece fame, abandons the
title character for the daughter of the King of Corinth with the consequence that Medeia kills her own
children in revenge.

Euripides differs from Aeschylus and Sophocles in his search for technical experimentation and increased
focus on feelings as a mechanism to elaborate the unfolding of tragic events. In Euripides’ tragedies, there
are three experimental aspects that reoccur. The first is the transition of the prologue to a monologue
performed by an actor informing spectators of a story’s background. The second is the introduction of deus
ex machina, or a plot device whereby a seemingly unsolvable problem is suddenly and abruptly resolved
by the unexpected intervention of some new event, character, ability, or object. Finally, the use of a chorus
was minimized in favor of a monody sung by the characters.

Another novelty introduced by Euripidean drama is the realism with which characters’ psychological
dynamics are portrayed. Unlike in Aeschylus or Sophocles’ works, heroes in Euripides’ plays were
portrayed as insecure characters troubled by internal conflict rather than simply resolute. Female
protagonists were also used to portray tormented sensitivity and irrational impulses that collided with the
world of reason.

Although plays were specifically commissioned for competition during religious and other types of
festivals, many were re-performed and copied into scripts for 'mass' publication. Those scripts regarded as
classics, particularly by the three great Tragedians, were even kept by the state as official and unalterable
state documents. Also, the study of the 'classic' plays became an important part of the school curriculum.

There were, however, new plays continuously being written and performed, and with the formation of
actors' guilds in the 3rd century BCE and the mobility of professional troupes, the genre continued to spread
across the Greek world with theatres becoming a common feature of the urban landscape from Magna
Graecia to Asia Minor.

In the Roman world, tragedy plays were translated and imitated in Latin, and the genre gave rise to a new
art form from the 1st century BCE, pantomime, which drew inspiration from the presentation and subject
matter of Greek tragedy.