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CHAPTER-14
 MAGNETISM
 Anybody which can attract or repel any other magnet or which can attract iron, nickel and
cobalt is called magnet.
 Space around a magnet where in which it can attract or repel other magnet or can attract iron
is called magnetic field.
 Any magnet has two poles, North Pole and South Pole. Same poles repel each other and
opposite poles attract each other.
 Magnetic field is detected by compass.
 Magnetic field is filled with magnetic field lines which are directed from North pole to south pole
outside magnet and from south to north pole inside magnet.
 Magnetic field lines exist within magnet.
 ELECTRO MAGNETISM
 In 1819 (Birth year of electromagnetism) Oerested professor of Physics at Copenhagen
discovered that when current passes through conductor it becomes magnet and gains
magnetic properties, this phenomenon in which current makes a conductor magnet is called
electromagnetism.
 In 1820 Ampere performing experiments on current carrying conductors concluded that
magnetism in conductors is due to motion of charges hence moving charge becomes magnet
therefore conductors show magnetic properties.
 EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
 Earth is naturally a huge magnet; it has two geographic poles and two magnetic poles.
 Earth‟s magnetic field id from geographic south to geographic north. It is curved and non-
uniform everywhere except at poles where it is uniform and straight to poles.
 ISOLATED MOVING POINT CHARGE
 Isolated moving charge has both electric and magnetic fields both perpendiculars to each other.
 Magnetic field of isolated point charge is circular. Anticlockwise lines indicate north pole and clockwise
lines indicate south pole.
 Direction of magnetic field lines of positive charge is determined by right hand grip rule and of negative
charge is determined by left hand grip rule.
 If a positive charge moves away from you then its lines appear clockwise hence its face is South Pole,
if charge moves towards you its lines appear anticlockwise and its face is North Pole.
 If a negative charge moves away from you its lines appear anticlockwise and its face is north pole, if
charge moves towards then lines appear clockwise hence its face is south pole.

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 MOVING POINT CHARGE IN MAGNETIC FIELD
 When a charge moves in a conductor its electric field is neutralized by protons present in
conductor therefore current carrying conductor has only magnetic field.
 Magnetic field of current carrying conductor is of circular form and direction of magnetic field is
determined by right hand grip rule.
 ISOLATED MOVING CHARGE IN MAGNETIC FIELD
 When a charge moves it becomes a magnet therefore when it reaches in a magnetic field it
can experience a magnetic force which depends upon magnitude of charge, velocity of charge
and strength of magnetic field.
𝑭 = 𝒒 (𝑽 × 𝑩) OR 𝑭 = 𝒒 𝑽𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 (Magnitude)
 Magnetic force is cross product between velocity and magnetic field. Its direction can be
determined by Flemings rule or Maxwell‟s rule. Fleming‟s left hand or Maxwell‟s right hand for
force on positive charge and Fleming‟s right hand rule and Maxwell‟s left hand rule for force on
negative charge.
 Magnetic force is cross product between 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 therefore it is perpendicular to both 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵.
 Maximum force is exerted when charge moves perpendicular to 𝐵. Zero force is exerted by 𝐵
when charge moves parallel to 𝐵 . No force is exerted by 𝐵 when charge is stationary in
magnetic field.
 When charge moves perpendicular to 𝐵 its path is circular and when it moves at some angle
its path is helical. Charge moves un-deflected when it moves parallel or antiparallel to 𝐵.
𝐹 𝑁 𝑁
 Magnetic field is equal to: 𝐵 = , its unit is 𝐶−𝑚 /𝑠 = = 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 𝑇 .
𝑞𝑉 𝐴−𝑠

 Magnetic field of induction in any region is said to be 1T if 1C charge moving with 1m/s
experiences a force of 1N.
 FORCE ON CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN MAGNETIC FIELD
 When a current carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field it experiences magnetic force
which depends upon current through conductor, length of conductor, magnetic field and angle
of nonconductor with magnetic field, 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
 Force on a conductor is due to force on charges moving in conductor.
 Direction of force on conductor is determined by Fleming‟s left hand rule or Maxwell‟s right
hand rule.
 Maximum force is experienced at 900 and minimum (zero) force is experienced when
conductor lies parallel to 𝐵.
 Magnetic force on isolated charge or current carrying conductor is called Lorentz force.
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 TORQUE ON CURRENT CARRYING RECTANGULAR LOOP IN MAGNETIC FIELD
 When current passes through rectangular coil suspended in magnetic field it experiences
magnetic deflecting torque (Torque of couple) which depends upon area, current, number of
turns, magnetic field and angle between plane of coil and magnetic field, 𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑁 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼. This
formula is also valid for circular coil.
 When plane of coil becomes parallel to 𝐵 flux through coil becomes minimum but torque is
maximum and when plane becomes perpendicular to 𝐵 flux becomes maximum and torque
becomes minimum.
 Torque experienced by coil is non-uniform
 MAGNETIC FLUX AND FLUX DENSITY
 Magnetic field of induction can be visualized by magnetic field lines. Unlike electric field lines
magnetic field lines are continuous and endless.
 Magnetic field lines are traced using compass.
 Magnetic field lines can form a loop they can form circle. Electric field lines can not form loop
or circle.
 Magnetic field lines of straight current carrying conductor are concentric circles and direction of
lines is determined by right hand grip rule with thumb in direction of conventional current.
 Two current carrying conductors carrying current in opposite direction repel each other.
 Two current carrying conductors carrying current in same direction attract each other.
 Magnetic field of bar magnet is uniform inside magnet and is directed from south pole to north
pole whereas outside magnetic field is non-uniform and directed from north pole to south pole.
 The lines of induction of circular loop enter one face which is the South Pole and merge from
other face which is North Pole. On looking at face if the current appears clockwise the face is
South Pole, the face is North Pole if on locking on it current is anticlockwise.
 The number of lines per unit area passing through a very small surface held normal to the lines
at point is equal to the magnitude of B at that point.
 Number of magnetic lines of induction crossing the surface normally is called magnetic flux,
∅ = (𝐵 . ∆𝐴).
 Flux is maximum at 00 and minimum at 900 between 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐴.
 Unit of flux is called weber.
∅
 Magnetic flux density is called magnetic field intensity 𝐵 = ∆𝐴, unit of 𝐵 can be written as

weber/m2.

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 FORCE ON CHSARGED PARTICLE MOVING IN MAGNETIC FIELD
 When a charged particle moves perpendicular to 𝐵 then magnetic force becomes centripetal
𝑚𝑣 𝑃
force and Charged particle moves in a circle, whose radius is given by, 𝑟 = = 𝑞𝐵
𝑞𝐵

 If radius of charged particle is large it angle of deflection is small and if radius is small angle of
deflection is large.
 Symbol of cross (×) represents inward magnetic field, symbol of dot ( ) represents outward
magnetic field.
 When a charged particle moves in a region where both perpendicular electric and magnetic
fields exist and if charged particle passes through this region straight then velocity of particle
𝐸
will be equal to 𝑣 = 𝐵 .

 CHARGE TO MASS RATIO OF ELECTRON

 JJ Thomson determined charged to mass ratio of electron to calculate mass of electron.
 He used apparatus called CRO in which 1000V and 500V potential difference was applied to
accelerate electron ejected by filament by the process of thermionic emission. Screen of
apparatus was coated with Zinc sulphide.
𝒆 𝒗 𝑬
 = = = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟓𝟖𝟖𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑪/𝒌𝒈. 𝒎𝒆 = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝒈.
𝒎 𝒓𝑩 𝒓𝑩𝟐
 AMPERE’S LAW
 BIOT SAVART LAW: Biot-savart law is applicable finding magnetic field of straight current
carrying conductor only.
According to this law magnetic field around straight current carrying conductor is directly
proportional to 2I and inversely proportional to distance from conductor
𝝁 𝟐𝑰 𝑰 𝑾𝒃 𝝁𝟎
𝑩 = 𝟒𝝅𝟎 , = 𝝁𝟎 𝟐𝝅𝒓, 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑨−𝒎, = 𝟏𝟎 −𝟕
𝒓 𝟒𝝅

𝜇 0 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐿
 Force between two current carrying conductors is equal to 𝐹 = .
2𝜋𝑟

 AMPERE’S LAW: The sum of the products of the tangential component of magnetic field of

induction and the length of element of closed curve is 𝜇0 times the current which passes

through the area bounded by this curve. 𝐵 . ∆𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼.

 Ampere‟s law is used for finding magnetic field of induction if we possibly imagine a closed

curve around which the quantity 𝐵 . ∆𝑙 can be evaluated.

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 SOLENOIDAL FIELD
 A solenoid is a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a long cylinder with close turns.
 Except the ends the lines of magnetic field are fairley parallel to each other and also parallel to
axis of solenoid and closely packed inside solenoid indicating that field is strong and uniform in
the middle of solenoid. Outside solenoid field is weak but not zero.
𝑁
 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐿 𝐼 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 , N=number of turns, n= number of turns per unit length.

 Magnetic field of solenoid is similar to bar magnet. Its direction is from North Pole to South
Pole outside and from south to north pole inside solenoid.
 When DC passes through solenoid its shrinks and when AC passes it vibrates.
 TOROIDAL FIELD
 A toroid or circular solenoid is a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a long circular core with
close turns.
 A toroid produces a uniform magnetic field of induction which is confined in the space occupied
𝝁𝟎 𝑵𝑰
by the core. Outside turns of toroid field is zero, 𝑩 = .
𝟐𝝅 𝒓
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
 In 1830 Joseph Henry in united states and year later Faraday in England discovered
phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.
 An EMF is set up in a coil placed in a magnetic field whenever flux through the coil changes,
this effect is called electromagnetic induction.
 Magnitude of induced EMF depends on the rate at which the flux through the coil changes and
number of turns of coil, therefore it is useful to define a quantity flux linkage as being product of
number of turns and flux through coil, 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑁∅.
 It is not necessary that induced EMF is produced in a coil but it can also be produced in
straight conductor if it is caused to cut across magnetic induction lines.
 The flux through a circuit can be changed by:
i- By changing relative position of the coil with respect to a magnet or current bearing solenoid.
ii- By changing current in neighboring coil or by changing current in the coil itself.
 No current or EMF is induced in coil when coil and magnet are kept stationary as was done in
early 10 years because the coil has resistance and energy is necessary to force a current
through it. No energy is expended when coil is lying motionless in the field.
 LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
 There are two laws of electromagnetic induction called Faraday‟s laws of electromagnetic
induction.

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1. A n EMF is induced in coil through which flux is changing. The emf lasts so long as the change
in flux is in progress and becomes zero as soon as the flux through the coil becomes constant.
2. The magnitude of induced emf depends only upon the number of turns and the time rate of
𝑑
change flux linked with the circuit, 𝐸 = − 𝑑𝑡 𝑁∅ .

 These laws only tell about magnitude of induced emf. Negative sign is due to Lenz‟s law.
 EMF is always induced in a circuit whether flux is increasing or decreasing.
 LENZ’S LAW (1835)
 Lenz‟s law explains negative sign in Faraday‟s law. This law is also called law of conservation
of energy.
 STATEMENT: The direction of induced emf is always in such a way that is opposes the cause
which is giving rise to it. Induced emf always opposes change of flux.
 When North pole of bar magnet approaches the face of coil then anti-clockwise current is
induced in the coil hence its face becomes North pole and opposes forward motion of magnet.
 When South pole of bar magnet approaches the face of coil then clockwise current is induced
in the coil hence its face becomes South pole and opposes forward motion of magnet.
 When North pole of bar magnet is receding, then clockwise current is induced in the coil hence
its face becomes South pole and opposes backward motion of magnet.
 When South pole of bar magnet is receding, then anti-clockwise current is induced in the coil
hence its face becomes North pole and opposes backward motion of magnet.
 If a piece of wire of length „L‟ moves perpendicular to magnetic field towards right then force on
it is towards left.
 If a piece of wire of length „L‟ moves perpendicular to magnetic field towards left then force on
it is towards right.
 SELF-INDUCTION:

 A coil through which a current is passing has an associated magnetic field, if for any the

current changes in coil then magnetic field of coil itself also changes hence flux through coil

changes which gives rise to emf in coil this is called self-induction.

 When emf is induced in coil due to change of its own flux then this is called self-induction.

 Self-induced emf opposes the change that has induced it, therefore its is also called back emf.

If current in the coil increases it opposes increase and if current in the coil decreases it

opposes decrease.

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 SELF-INDUCTANCE (L): The measure of ability of coil to give rise back emf is called self-
inductance. Unit of self-inductance is henry (H).
 Self-inductance depends upon dimension of coil, the number of turns and the permeability of
the core material.
 Self-inductance of coil is 1henry if the current varying through it at the rate of 1A/sec induces a
back emf of 1V.
∆𝐈
 𝐄 = −𝐋 ∆𝐭 𝐨𝐫 𝐍∅ = 𝐋𝐈

 MUTUAL-INDUCTION
 If changing current in one coil (Primary) sets up a changing magnetic field in the other
(Secondary) so induces an emf in it then this effect is called mutual induction.
 MUTUAL-INDUCTANCE (M): The measure of ability of coils to give rise back emf is called
mutual-inductance. Unit of mutual-inductance is henry (H).
 Mutual-inductance depends upon dimension of coil, the number of turns and the permeability
of the core material.
 Mutual-inductance of coil is 1henry if the current varying through primary at the rate of 1A/sec
induces a back emf of 1V in secondary.
∆𝐈𝟏
 𝐄𝟐 = −𝐌 𝐨𝐫 𝐍𝟐 ∅𝟐 = 𝐌𝐈𝟏
∆𝐭

 The mutual inductance of pair of coils „M‟ has the same value no matter which of the a given
pair of coil is taken to be primary.
 NON INDUCTIVE WINDING
 In bridge circuits self-induction is nuisance and delays reading it may therefore be misleading.
 To minimize their self-induction coils of bridge circuits and resistance boxes are so wound as
to set up extremely small magnetic fields, for this purpose the wires are doubled on back on
itself. Such coils are called non inductive.
 In this type of winding current flows in opposite direction in double wires and consequently
magnetic flux sets up by one wire is neutralized by other wire. Hence self-induced emf will not
be induced.
 MOTIONAL EMF
 When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field a potential difference appears across its
ends, this potential difference is created due to motion of conductor in magnetic field therefore
it is called motional emf.
 Motional emf depends upon velocity of conductor, magnetic field, length of conductor and
angle of conductor with magnetic field, 𝑉 = 𝑣𝐵𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃.
 Maximum emf is induced when conductor moves perpendicular to magnetic field and minimum
emf is induced when conductor moves parallel to magnetic field.
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 AC GENERATOR
 An electrical device which converts mechanical energy to electrical energy is called generator.
 AC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy inform of AC.
 PRICIPLE: Principle of generator is that an emf is induced in the coil due to changing
magnetic flux linkage when it is rotated between poles of a magnet.
 ESSENTIAL PARTS OF AC GENERATOR:
1- Field magnet: It is strong permanent horse shoe magnet which produces strong uniform
magnetic field.
2- Armature: It is soft iron cylinder mounted on an axle which can rotate between pole pieces, a
coil of insulated copper wire of large number of turns is wound on the cylinder in the grove cut
length wise.
Current is produced in coil when rotated.
3- Slip Rings and Carbon Brushes: The ends of armature coil are joined to two copper rings; two
carbon brushes remain pressed against each of ring which form the terminals of the external
circuit.
Current produced in coil is transferred to external circuit by carbon brushes.
 When coil moves motional EMF is set up in the coil which depends upon area of coil, number
of turns in coil, magnetic field strength, angular frequency of rotation and frequency of rotation,
𝐄 = 𝐀𝐍𝐁𝛚 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭 = 𝐀𝐍𝐁𝛚 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐭 = 𝐄𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭 = 𝐄𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐭.
𝐄𝟎 = 𝐀𝐍𝐁𝛚(𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐞𝐦𝐟).
 Any small generator employing a permanent magnet is called magneto and is used in ignition
system of petrol engines, motor bikes motor boats.
 The field magnets of large generators are electromagnets and these generators are called
alternators.
 Performance of AC generator is more satisfactory when armature is stationary and field
magnet rotates around armature.
 Stationary armature is called stator and rotating magnet rotor.
 Pulsating AC is obtained, AC is always pulsating current.
 When flux through coil is maximum EMF is minimum and when flux is minimum EMF is
maximum.
 DC GENERATOR
 An electrical device which converts mechanical energy to electrical energy is called generator.
 DC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy inform of DC.

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 PRICIPLE: Principle of generator is that an emf is induced in the coil due to changing
magnetic flux linkage when it is rotated between poles of a magnet.
 ESSENTIAL PARTS OF DC GENERATOR:
1- Field magnet: It is strong permanent horse shoe magnet which produces strong uniform
magnetic field.
2- Armature: It is soft iron cylinder mounted on an axle which can rotate between pole pieces; a
coil of insulated copper wire of large number of turns is wound on the cylinder in the grove cut
length wise.
Current is produced in coil when rotated.
3- Commutators and Carbon Brushes: The ends of armature coil are joined to two split rings in
form of Commutators; two carbon brushes remain pressed against each of commutator which
form the terminals of the external circuit. Current produced in coil is transferred to external
circuit by carbon brushes.
 When coil moves motional EMF is set up in the coil which depends upon area of coil, number
of turns in coil, magnetic field strength, angular frequency of rotation and frequency of rotation,
𝐄 = 𝐀𝐍𝐁𝛚 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭 = 𝐀𝐍𝐁𝛚 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐭 = 𝐄𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭 = 𝐄𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐭. 𝐄𝟎 = 𝐀𝐍𝐁𝛚(𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐞𝐦𝐟).
 Current in coil is produced is always AC Commutators make it DC.
 Pulsating DC is obtained, to get steady DC, number of coils is increased and filter circuits are
used. Number of Commutators is double of number of coils.
 DC MOTOR
 An electric motor is device which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.
 PRINCIPLE: It works on principle of magnetic deflecting torque. When current passes through
coil placed in magnetic field it rotates due to deflecting magnetic torque, 𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑁 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼.
 ESSENTIAL PARTS OF DC MOTOR:
1. Field magnet.
2. Armature.
3. Commutators and Carbon Brushes.
 In practice armature of motor consists of large number of coil to make torque uniform.

 Curved pole pieces make magnetic field radial and torque uniform.

 TRANSFORMER

 Transformer is device which is used for stepping up or down an alternating EMF.

 PRINCIPLE: It works on principle of mutual induction.

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 CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER: Two coils of insulated copper wire the primary and
secondary are wound one on top of other on a laminated soft iron core linked magnetically.
 The presence of soft iron core ensures that all the flux associated with one coil also passes
𝐸 𝑁
through the other, 𝐸 𝑆 = 𝑁 𝑆
𝑃 𝑃

 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER:
1. STEP UP TRANSFORMER: This transformer is used to increase EMF in secondary coil, in
this type, 𝑁𝑆 > 𝑁𝑃 , 𝐸𝑆 > 𝐸𝑃 , 𝐼𝑆 < 𝐼𝑃
2. STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER: This transformer is used to decrease EMF in secondary coil,
in this type, 𝑁𝑆 < 𝑁𝑃 , 𝐸𝑆 < 𝐸𝑃 , 𝐼𝑆 > 𝐼𝑃
 In ideal transformer ( not practically) power output is equal power input,
𝐄𝐒 𝐈
𝐏𝐢𝐧 = 𝐏𝐨𝐮𝐭 , 𝐈𝐒 𝐄𝐒 = 𝐈𝐏 𝐄𝐏 , = 𝐏 , this relation shoes that in step up transformer EMF in
𝐄𝐏 𝐈𝐒

secondary is larger than EMF in primary but current in secondary is less than current in
primary. In step down transformer EMF in secondary is smaller than EMF in primary but
current in secondary is larger than current in primary. This is due to law of conservation of
energy. The efficiencies of commercial transformers are very high in the range 95 to 99%.
 SOURCES OF POWER LOSS IN TRANSFORMER
 EDDY CURRENTS: Currents produced on the surface of iron core due to changing flux
through core of transformer are called eddy currents; eddy currents produce heating effects in
core material and hence become source of power loss.
REMOVAL: The core is laminated made up of thin sheets of soft iron each separated from
next by layer of insulating varnish.
 HYSTERESIS LOSS: Each time the direction of magnetization of the core is reversed, some
energy is wasted in overcoming internal friction this is called hysteresis loss which produces
heating effect in core material and hence become source of power loss.
REMOVAL: It is minimized by using special alloys (perm alloy) for core material.

 Some energy is dissipated as heat (I2R) due to resistance of coils; this is reduced by using

thick wire which carries large current. In step up transformer primary coil carries large current

therefore it is made thick, in step down transformer secondary wire carries large current

therefore is made thick.

 Some loss of energy occurs because a small amount of the flux associated with the primary
fails to pass through the secondary.

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 POWER TRANSMISSION

 For sending electrical energy to large distance from generating station AC system is used to

reduce line losses. DC system would cause much loss than AC system.

 In transmission lines power loss is I2R, therefore in AC system the terminal voltage at the

generating station is increased and current is decreased using step up transformer,

consequently power loss becomes small.

 At Grid station or other receiving end (street transformers) step down transformer is used

which decreases voltage up to 220-240V and increases current to be used safely.

 In houses a transformer may be used to step the voltage down from 220V to 4V for call bells or

door bells.

 Transformers with several secondary are used where different voltages are required, for

example radio, television circuits etc.

 Stabilizer in houses also uses transformer to step up or down voltage, mobile charger also

uses transformer to step down AC voltage to DC voltage.

S I NDH P UBLI C S CHO O L & CO LLE G E UME RKO T COMPOSED BY: M. HANIF MAHAR