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DNA Notes

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10 views

DNA Notes

Uploaded by

aaryanambiar6
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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DNA Notes

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is often described as a twisted ladder or double


helix.
1. Backbone: The sides of the DNA "ladder" are made of sugar and
phosphate molecules, which form a strong backbone.
2. Rungs of the Ladder: The "steps" or "rungs" are pairs of nitrogenous
bases. There are four types of bases in DNA:
o Adenine (A)

o Thymine (T)

o Cytosine (C)

o Guanine (G)

3. Base Pairing: Each base pairs specifically with another:


o Adenine (A) always pairs with Thymine (T)

o Cytosine (C) always pairs with Guanine (G)

4. Double Helix Shape: The structure naturally twists, forming a spiral or


helix shape, which keeps it compact and stable.

What is a chromosome?
A chromosome is a structure within cells that holds tightly coiled DNA and
proteins. Chromosomes are essential because they organize and protect DNA,
allowing it to fit within the nucleus of each cell and be accurately copied and
divided during cell division.
1. Structure: Chromosomes are made up of DNA wound tightly around
proteins called histones. This organized, compact structure helps DNA stay
stable and ensures genes are protected from damage.
2. Genes: Each chromosome contains numerous genes, which are specific
segments of DNA that carry instructions for making proteins and
determining traits.
3. Number: Humans have 46 chromosomes in total (23 pairs). Each parent
contributes one chromosome to each pair, giving you a set of 23
chromosomes from your mother and 23 from your father.
4. Role in Heredity: Chromosomes ensure that genetic information is
accurately passed from parents to offspring during reproduction, playing a
key role in heredity and determining inherited traits.
Examples of how the nitrogen bases have a sequence that leads to the formation
of proteins:
The sequence of nitrogen bases in DNA—adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C),
and guanine (G)—determines the order of amino acids in a protein, which
ultimately shapes the protein’s structure and function.
1. DNA Sequence to RNA (Transcription):
DNA is first transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) in the nucleus. In
RNA, adenine (A) pairs with uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).
o Example DNA Sequence: TAC-GGA-CTA

o Corresponding mRNA Sequence: AUG-CCU-GAU

2. Codons and Amino Acids (Translation):


The mRNA sequence is read in sets of three bases called codons. Each
codon specifies a particular amino acid. For example:
o AUG codes for methionine (often the "start" signal for protein
synthesis)
o CCU codes for proline

o GAU codes for aspartic acid

3. Protein Formation:
These amino acids (methionine, proline, aspartic acid) link together to
form part of a protein chain. The specific sequence and combination of
amino acids determine the protein's structure and function.
4. Example Protein Segment:
So, the DNA sequence TAC-GGA-CTA directs the production of a protein
segment with methionine-proline-aspartic acid.

Does all the segments of the genes have nitrogen bases?


Yes, all segments of genes are made up of sequences of nitrogen bases—adenine
(A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G)—but not every segment of a gene
is directly involved in coding for a protein.
1. Coding Regions (Exons): These are the segments of DNA within a gene
that contain the sequences (codons) directly coding for amino acids. These
sequences get transcribed and translated to form proteins.
2. Non-Coding Regions (Introns): Many genes also have segments called
introns, which are non-coding sections within a gene. Introns are
transcribed into RNA but are removed before translation. They do have
nitrogen bases, but they don’t contribute directly to protein sequences.
Introns can play regulatory or structural roles, affecting how and when a
gene is expressed.
3. Regulatory Sequences: Beyond exons and introns, there are also non-
coding sequences with nitrogen bases that act as regulatory elements.
These include promoters and enhancers, which help control when a gene
is turned on or off, but don’t code for proteins themselves.
What is STR and how it is related to genes?
STR (Short Tandem Repeat) refers to specific regions in DNA where short
sequences of nitrogen bases (usually 2-6 base pairs) are repeated several times
in a row. These sequences are found throughout the genome and vary greatly
among individuals, making them especially useful in fields like forensics and
genetic profiling.
1. Structure and Location:
STRs are located in both coding (genes) and non-coding regions of DNA. In
coding regions, they may influence gene function or expression, though
most STRs are found in non-coding regions, where they typically don’t
affect gene function directly.
2. Repetitive Sequences:
An STR might look like "AGATAGATAGAT" (where "AGAT" is repeated three
times). The number of repeats varies among individuals, making each
person's STR pattern unique. For instance, one person might have three
repeats of "AGAT" at a certain location, while another might have seven
repeats at the same location.
3. Relation to Genes and Heredity:
STRs can sometimes affect gene expression if they occur near or within a
gene. In some cases, a high number of repeats can disrupt gene function,
leading to genetic disorders. For example, Huntington’s disease is caused
by an excess of CAG repeats in a specific gene.
4. Uses in Identification:
Because STR patterns are highly variable between individuals, STR
analysis is commonly used in DNA fingerprinting and forensics. By
comparing STR profiles, forensic scientists can identify individuals with
high accuracy.

Based on your reading answer the questions in the assignment.

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