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Chapter Seven

Data Presentation and Analysis

By: Zelalem T. (PhD)

Zelalem T. (PhD)
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OVERVIEW OF DATA PROCESSING

Classification and
tabulation
Data Entry

Data Analysis
Coding

Editing Descriptive Inferential Statistics

Univariate Bivariate Multivariate

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Data Processing

Data possessing implies:

❖ Editing
❖ Coding

❖ Classification

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Editing
Is a process of examining the collected raw data to
detect errors and omission (extreme values) and to
correct those when possible
involves a careful scrutiny of completed questionnaires
or schedules
is done to assure that the data are
▪ Accurate
▪ Consistent with other data gathered
▪ Uniformly entered
▪ As complete as possible
▪ And has been well organized to facilitate coding and tabulation

▪ Editing can be either field editing or central editing

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Cont’d
Coding: Refers to the process of assigning numerical
or other symbols to answers so that responses can be
put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such
classes should be appropriate to the research problem
under consideration.
There must be a class of every data items. They must be
mutually exclusive (a specific answer can be placed in
one and only one cell in a given category set).

Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it

several replies may be reduced to a small number of
classes, which contain the critical information required
for analysis.
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Cont’d

Eg. Closed Ended Item

1. [ ] Yes 2 [ ] No
Or
❖ Less than 200 [ ] 001
❖ 201- 500 [ ] 002
❖ 501-800 [ ] 003
❖ 801-1100 [ ] 004
❖ 1101-1499 [ ] 005
❖ 1500 and more [ ] 006

Coding is used when the researcher uses computer to analyze

the data otherwise it can be avoided.

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Classification
Most research studies result in a large volume of raw
data, which must be reduced into homogeneous group.
Which means to classify the raw data or arranging data
in-groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics.

Data having common characteristics placed in one

class and in this way the entire data get divided into a
number of groups or classes.

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Classification according to attributes

Data are classified either be

❖ descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc.) or
❖ numerical (such as, weight, age, height, income,
expenditure, etc.).

Data obtained in qualitative way on the basis of

certain attributes are known as statistics of attributes
and their classification is said to be classification
according to attributes.

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Data Analysis

is further transformation of the processed

data to look for patterns and relations
among data groups.

is the computation of certain indices or

measures along with searching for
patterns or relationship that exist among
the data groups.

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Cont’d

Involves (in cases of survey or experimental

data) estimating the values of unknown
parameters of the population and testing of
hypothesis for drawing inferences.

Analysis can be categorized as:

❖ Descriptive Analysis

❖ Inferential Analysis
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Descriptive Data Analysis

Descriptive analysis is largely the study of

distribution of one variable.

Analysis begins for most projects with some

form of descriptive analysis to reduce the data
into a summary format.

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Cont’d

Descriptive analysis refers to the

transformation of raw data into a form that will
make them easy to understand and interpret.

The calculation of averages, frequency

distribution, and percentage distribution is the
most common form of summarizing data.

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Descriptive ….

The most common forms of describing the

processed data are:
❖ Tabulation
❖ Percentage
❖ Graphs and charts
❖ Measurements of central tendency
❖ Measurements of dispersion
❖ Measurement of asymmetry
❖ Data transformation and index number

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Tabulation
Refers to the orderly arrangement of data in a
table or other summary format. It
❖ presents responses or the observations on a question-
by-question or item-by-item basis and provides the
most basic form of information.
❖ tells the researcher how frequently each response
occurs.
❖ requires the counting of responses or observations
for each of the categories. Eg. Frequency tables

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Percentage
Whether the data are tabulated by
computer or by hand, it is useful to have
percentages and cumulative percentage.
❖ Table containing percentage and frequency
distribution is easier to interpret.
❖ Percentages are useful for comparing the
trend over time or among categories

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Data Presentation
Data in raw form:
❖ are usually not easy to use for decision making

Some type of organization is needed

❖ Table
❖ Graph

Data presentation:
❖ The process of transforming a mass of raw data into
tables and charts-as a part of making sense of the
data.
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Data Presentation

refers to the preparation of data in a

manner that could be used by general
audience:
Tables:
❖ They can be used with just about all types of
numerical data.
Graphical
❖ The type of graph to use depends on the variable
being summarized
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8 Data Presentation: The Frequency
Distribution Table categorical
Summarize data by category
Example: Hospital Patients by unit
Hospital unit Number of patients/month
Cardiac Care 1052
Emergency 2245
Intensive Care 340
Maternity 552
Surgery 4630

Variables are
categorical
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Tables
Person Mode of Person Mode of
travel travel
Example for tabulation of
1 car 11 car
data: A small survey was
2 car 12 bus
carried out into the mode
3 bus 13 walk
of travel to work by taking
4 car 14 car
a random sample of 20
5 walk 15 train employed adults.
6 cycle 16 bus
7 car 17 car How would you classify
8 cycle 18 cycle this data
9 bus 19 car
10 train 20 car

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Tables
This data is categorical
(nominal) since mode of
travel does not have a Mode of f Relative
numerical value. This Travel frequency %
information would be better Car 9 45
Bus 4 20
displayed as a frequency
Cycle 3 15
table: Walk 2 10
❑ Frequency: the number of times Train 2 10
each category appeared Total 20 100

❑ Ordering by describing size of

frequency makes
comparison learner
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Tables and Graphs for Categorical Variables

Categorical Data

Tabulating Graphing

Frequency Distribution
Table Bar Chart Pie Chart

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Diagrammatic Presentation of Data

It includes:
• Bar charts,
• Histogram
• Line Graphs,
• frequency polygon

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Diagrammatic: Bar Charts

A bar chart is a graph that shows the frequency
distribution of a variable.
they can be used with nominal and with discrete data
Bars should be of equal width, with the height of
the bars representing the frequency (height of the
bar is proportional to frequency) or the amount for
each separate category.
For each category a vertical bar is drawn
There is a gap between each bar.

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Diagrammatic Presentation of Data

Types of bar charts: simple bar chart, multiple bar
chart, component bar chart
A simple bar chart: shows the total of each category
A multiple bar chart is used when you are interested
in changes in the components but the totals are of
no interest
A component bar chart: this helps to compare totals
and seeing how the totals are made up a component
bar chart.

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Simple Bar Chart example

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Component Bar Chart example

Sales by quarter for three territories:

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Multiple Bar Chart example

Sales by quarter for three territories:

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Pie Chart
Presents data as segments of the whole pie.
Each category is represented by a segment
of a circle.
The segments are presented in terms of
percentages.
The size of each segment reflects the
frequency of that category and can be
represented as an angle.
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Pie Chart ….
Sales by quarter for three territories:

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Data Presentation

A frequency distribution (or frequency table) is a set

of data which records the number of times a particular
value of a variable, or range of values of a variable,
occurs
Example
Amount Deposited (Birr) Frequency

Less than 50000 6700

50000 – 100 000 1240
Above 100000 375
Total 8315

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Histogram
A graph of the data in a frequency distribution is called a
histogram
The interval endpoints are shown on the horizontal axis
the vertical axis is either frequency, relative frequency, or
percentage
Bars of the appropriate heights are used to represent the
number of observations within each class

Differences from bar chart:

The horizontal axis is a continuous scale, just like a normal
graph-there should not be gaps between bars

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 Histogram an Example

Case Processing Summary

Valid Missing
Description N % N % Total %
I work in paid employment for (hrs/pw) 80 100 0 0% 80 100

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Activity
Sales by department

Item/year 2007 2008 2009

Clothing 1.7 1.4 1.4
Furniture 3.4 4.9 5.6
Electrical Goods 0.2 0.4 0.5
Total 5.3 6.7 7.5

Create:
1. A pie chart for sales in 2009
2.A simple bar chart of total sales for each of the three years
3.A multiple bar chart for sales by year and department
4.A component bar chart

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Essentials for the presentation of tables and charts:

Present enough information without ‘drowning’

the reader with information overload;
❖ a title;

❖ Information about the units being represented in

the columns of the table or the axes of the chart
(sometimes this is placed by the axes, sometimes
by the bars or lines, sometimes in a legend);

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Measures of Central Tendency

These measures are most useful when the purpose is

to identify typical values of a variable or the most
common characteristics of a group.
Measure of central tendency is also known as
statistical average. Mean, median and mode are most
popular averages.

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Measures of Central Tendency

Mean (arithmetic mean) is the common measure of

central tendency;
Mode is not commonly used but in such study like
estimating the popular size of shoes it can be used
Median is commonly used in estimating the average
of qualitative phenomenon like estimating
intelligence.
Zelalem T, (PhD)

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Measures of central tendency or statistical average

Also known as known as statistical averages

The purpose of measures of central tendency is to

determine the average value in a set of values.

Mean, median and mode are the most popular

averages

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Mean
Also known as arithmetic average
The most common measure of central
tendency
The average of all values in a set of data
Calculated by adding all the values in the
group and then dividing by the number of
values
Helps to summarizing the essential features
and enables comparison
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Mean
9

X 8 9 10 11 12 13 15 16 17 18

14

Mean
-2
+4
-2
-6 -2 -1 +2 +3 +4

Summed negative deviations= -13 Summed positive deviations= +13

The sum of the positive and negative deviations are always zero.
• The mean as a balance point.
• Since the mean is determined by the value of every score, it is the preferred measure
of central tendency.

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Cont’d

Median Mode
Is the value of the middle Mode is the frequently
item of series when it is occurring value in a series
arranged in ascending or - maximum frequency.
descending order.
The mode in a distribution
It divides the series into is that item around which
two half there is maximum
It is positional average concentration

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Activity: Measures of central tendency

Arithmetic Mean

The arithmetic mean is the average of all the values under consideration

Branch Revenue (in thousands)

1 50, 000
2 150,000
3 40,000

4 60,000
Total 300,000

Athematic mean = 75, 000

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Activity: Measures of central tendency

Mode
The Mode is the value that occurs most frequently in the distribution of values
under consideration
Sales Person Number of sales calls
1 4
2 3
3 2
4 5
5 3
6 3
7 7
8 5
Median 4 Mode = 3

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Measures of Dispersion
After identifying the typical value of a variable the
researcher can measure how the value of an item is
scattered around the true value of the mean.

❖ It is a measurement of how far is the value

of the variable from the average value.

❖ It measures the variation of the value of an

item.

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a. Measures of Dispersion
An average can represent a series only as best as a
single figure can, but it certainly cannot reveal the
entire story of any phenomenon under study

Shows the degree by which numerical data tend to

spread around an average value/mean .

Averages do not tell anything about the scatterness

of observations within the distribution.

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a. Measures of dispersion
In order to measure the degree of scatter, the
statistical device called measures of dispersion are
calculated

Important measures of dispersion are:

❖ Range = highest value – lowest value

❖ It shows the difference b/n the highest value and the lowest
value, hence it is the weakest measure of dispersion

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cont’d
Mean deviation
❖ First calculate the mean, then deduct the mean from each
value in the group and divide the result by the number of
values

Variance
❖ First calculate the mean, then deduct the mean from each
value in the group, square the result and divide the result by
the number of values

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cont’d
Standard Deviation

❖ The most reliable measurement of the degree to which the

data is spread around the mean

❖ Putting the variance in square root

❖ It is often symbolized as σ when referring to a population

and ‘SD’ when referring to a sample.

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Justification for Dispersion measures

Averages are representatives of a frequency
distribution but they fail to give a complete picture
about the distribution.
Suppose that we have the distribution of the yields
(Kg per plot) of two wheat varieties from 5 plots
Variety I 45 42 42 41 40
each. The distribution may be as follows:
Varity II 54 48 42 33 30

• It can be seen that the mean yield for both varieties is 42

Kg. But we cannot say that the performance of the two
varieties are the same.

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 Example
Scores score-mean (score-mean)2

8 8-7= 1 (1)= 1
11 11-7= 4 (4)= 16
6 6-7= -1 (-1)= 1
7 7-7= 0 (0)= 0
5 5-7= -2 (-2)= 4
9 9-7= 2 (2)= 4
5 5-7= -2 (-2)= 4
9 9-7= 2 (2)= 4
9 9-7= 2 (2)= 4
1 1-7= -6 (-6)= 36
Mean=70/10=7
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Justification for Dispersion measures

There is greater uniformity of yields in the first variety whereas

there is more variability in the yields of the second variety.
❑ The first variety may be preferred since it is more consistent in
yield performance

From the above example,

❑ it is obvious that a measure of central tendency alone is not
sufficient to describe a frequency distribution.

❑ In addition to it we should have a measure of scatterness of

observations (variationof observations from their average is called
the dispersion).

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Measurement of Asymmetry (Skewness)

When the distribution of items is happen to be
perfectly symmetrical, we then have a normal curve
and the relating distribution is normal distribution.

Such curve is perfectly bell shaped curve in which

case the value of Mean = Median = Mode

Under this condition the skewness is altogether

absent. If the curve is distorted (whether on the right
or the left side), we have asymmetric distribution
which indicates that there is a skew ness.

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c. Measurement of Asymmetry (skewness)

❑ It measures the shape of distribution
❑ The shape of the distribution is said to be
symmetric if the observations are balanced, or
evenly distributed, about the center
Symmetric Distribution

10
9
8
7
Frequency

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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Cont’d
The shape of the distribution is said to be skewed if the
observations are not symmetrically distributed around the
center.
A positively skewed distribution (skewed to the right) has a
tail that extends to the right in the direction of positive
values. In this case, mean> median >mode
A negatively skewed distribution (skewed to the left) has a
tail that extends to the left in the direction of negative
values. In this case, mean< median <mode
Positively Skewed Distribution Negatively Skewed Distribution

12 12

10 10

8
Frequency

8
Frequency

6 6

4
4
2
2
0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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Inferential Statistics
Involves using obtained sample statistics to estimate
the corresponding population parameters

Researchers frequently conduct and seek to

determine the relationship between variables and test
statistical significance.

When the population is consisting of more than one

variable it is possible to measure the relationship
between them.

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Cont’d

If we have data on two variables we said to have a

bivariate variable, if the data is more than two
variables then the population is known as
multivariate population.

If for every measure of a variable, X, we have

corresponding value of variable, Y, the resulting
pairs of value are called a bivariate population

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Two questions should be answered to determine

the relationship between variables.

1. Is there an association or correlation between

the two or more variables? If yes, then up to
what degree?
❖ This will be answered by the use of correlation
technique.

In case of bivariate population, correlation can

be found using
❖ Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation: It is simple
correlation and commonly used
❖ Charles Spearman’s coefficient of correlation

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Measures of relationship

Need to determine whether there is a

relationship between variables

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Measures of relationship

Magnitude
and
Direction

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Measures of relationship

In case of multivariate population

correlation can be studied through:
❖ Coefficient of multiple correlation
❖ Coefficient of partial correlation

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Measures of relationship
Is there any cause and effect (causal
relationship) between two variables or between
one variable on one side and two or more
variables on the other side?

This question can be answered by the use of regression

analysis.
In regression analysis the researcher tries to estimate or
predict the average value of one variable on the basis of the
value of other variable.
❖ For instance a researcher estimates the average value score on
statistics knowing a student’s score on a mathematics examination.

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Cause and effect relationship: Regression

There are different techniques of regression.

In case of bivariate population cause and effect
relationship can be studied through simple
regression.
In case of multivariate population, causal
relationship can be studied through multiple
regression analysis.

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Inferential statistics answers the question:

"To what extent can these findings be
GENERALIZED? (Can we infer that they are
probably true for the whole population, not just the
sample?
Involves using obtained sample statistics to estimate
the corresponding population parameters.
Are measures of the SIGNIFICANCE of the
relationship between two or more variables.
Significance refers to the probability that the
findings could be attributed to sampling error.

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Inferential

Appropriate statistics depend on the LEVEL OF

MEASUREMENT OF THE DEPENDENT
VARIABLE (and of the independent variable).
Nominal & Ordinal Interval & Ratio

• T-Tests (2 groups)

• ANOVA (F-ratio)

Non Parametric test Parametric test

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Statistical Significance
Following the sampling-theory approach, we accept or
reject a hypothesis on the basis of sampling information
alone.

Since any sample will almost surely vary somewhat

from its population, we must judge whether these
differences are statistically significant or insignificant.

A difference has statistical significance if there is good

reason to believe the difference does not represent
random sampling fluctuations only.

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Statistical Significance

Tests of significance needs the

understanding of the logic of hypothesis
testing: two kinds of hypotheses are used-
null and alternative.

If the null hypothesis is rejected, an

alternative hypothesis is accepted.

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Statistical Significance …. cont’d

The null hypothesis is tested at a particular significance level.

This relates to area (or probability) in the tail of the distribution being
used for the test.

This area is called the critical region, and if the test statistic lies in the
critical region, you would infer that the result is unlikely to have
occurred by chance. You would then reject the null hypothesis.

For example, if the 5% level of significance was used and the null
hypothesis was rejected, you would say that H0 had been rejected at the
5% (or the .005) significance level, and the result was significant.

The more significant a result, the more likely that it represents

something genuine.

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Statistical Significance cont’d

The null hypothesis is tested at a particular significance level.

This relates to area (or probability) in the tail of the distribution being
used for the test.

This area is called the critical region, and if the test statistic lies in the
critical region, you would infer that the result is unlikely to have
occurred by chance. You would then reject the null hypothesis.

For example, if the 5% level of significance was used and the null
hypothesis was rejected, you would say that H0 had been rejected at the
5% (or the .005) significance level, and the result was significant.

The more significant a result, the more likely that it represents

something genuine.

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Statistical Significance cont’d

Some guidelines for selecting appropriate statistical method:

Business problem Statistical question to be Possible test of

asked statistical
significance
Interval or ratio scale Is the sample mean significantly Z-test (if sample is
e.g., Compare actual and different from hypothesized large)
hypothetical values of population mean •T-test (if sample is
average salary small)
Ordinal scale Does the distribution of scores for a Chi-square test
E.g. 1: compare actual and scale with the categories excellent,
expected evaluations good, fair, and poor differ from the
expected distribution
E.g. 2: Determine ordered Does a set of rank-orderings in a Kolmogorov-Smirnov
preferences for all brands in sample differ from an expected or test
product class hypothetical rank ordering?
Nominal Chi Square test

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Hypothesis

Hypothesis-Testing Procedures
❖ Select an appropriate test statistic.
❖ Establish the level of significance (e.g., = .05).
❖ Compute test statistic with actual data
❖ Determine degrees of freedom for the test
statistic.
❖ Obtain a tabled value for the statistical test.
❖ Compare the test statistic to the tabled value.
❖ Make decision to accept or reject null hypothesis

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Bivariate Statistical Tests

Bivariate Statistical Tests

Commonly used Bivariate Statistical
Tests are:
❖ t-Test
❖ Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

❖ Chi-square test

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t-Test

Tests the difference between two means

❖ t-test for independent groups (between subjects)

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Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Tests the difference between more than 2 means

1) One-way ANOVA (e.g., 3 groups)

One-factor ANOVA, also called one-way ANOVA is used

when the study involves 3 or more levels of a single
independent variable. For example, we might look at average
test scores for students exposed to one of three different
teaching techniques (three levels of a single independent
variable

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2. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)

An extension of ANOVA to more than one

dependent variables

Used to test the significance of differences between

the means of two or more groups on two or more
dependent variables, considered simultaneously.

E.g. the effect of two methods of exercise treatment

on both diastolic and systolic blood pressure

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Non-Parametric test: Chi-square Test

Typical are cases where persons, events, or objects are

grouped in two or more nominal categories such as
male and female, yes-no, favor-undecided-against,
successful-unsuccessful, agree-disagree, or class
“A,B,C, or D.”
Focus: test for the significant differences between the
observed distributions of data among categories and
the expected distributions based upon the null
hypothesis.

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Non-Parametric test: Chi-square Test

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Non-Parametric Test : Chi-square Test

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2/11/2023
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Non-Parametric Test : Chi-square Test

Example: The following table shows the responses to a
survey investigating awareness of HIV/Aids:
Awareness of the HIV/AIDS No. of Respondents Frequency

Aware 60 60
Unaware 40 40
Total 100 100
This frequency distributions/one-way frequency table, or
one dimensional table from a sample of 100, suggest that the
majority of the population (60 percent) is aware of [the
brand]. Is the observed difference the result of chance
variation or is it statistically significant?
X2 =4
Zelalem T. (PhD)
2/11/2023
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Cont’d

Zelalem T. (PhD)
2/11/2023
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Activity

Awareness of the Observed Expected Expected

HIV/AIDS probability
frequency frequency

Aware 60
Unaware 40
Total 100

Zelalem T. (PhD)
2/11/2023
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2/11/2023
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