Sampling

Sampling: period = T

y(k) y(t)
d @ 

Example (single pole signal)

 −at
e , t≥0
Consider, y(t) = with a > 0.
0 t<0
1
Laplace transform: y(s) = .
s+a

k
Sampled signal: y(k) = y(t) = e−akT = e−aT .
t=kT
z
Z-transform, y(z) = .
z − e−aT
The s-plane pole is at s1 = −a, and the corresponding z-plane pole is at z1 = e−aT .

Roy Smith: ECE 147b 3: 1

Sampling

Example: (second order)

Now consider a damped sinusoidal signal, y(t) = e−αt sin(βt), t ≥ 0, with α > 0.
β
Laplace transform: y(s) = , Poles: s1,2 = −α ± jβ.
(s + α)2 + β 2

Sampled signal: y(k) = e−αkT sin(βkT ), k ≥ 0.

Imaginary
z −1 e−αT sin(βT )
Z-transform: y(z) = .
1 − z 2e−αT cos(βT ) + z −2 e−2αT
−1 z-plane

Z domain poles given by: z 2 − 2e−αT cos(βT )z + e−2αT = 0.

e−αT
q βT
z1,2 = e−αT cos(βT ) ± e2αT cos2 (βT ) − e−2αT
 p  Real
= e−αT cos(βT ) ± j 1 − cos2 (βT )
= e−αT (cos(βT ) ± j sin(βT ))
= e−αT e±jβT
= e(−α±jβ)T .

Roy Smith: ECE 147b 3: 2

 Sampling

General case:

Sampling maps the s-domain poles to the z-domain via: zi = esi T .

Stable continuous-time signals (Re {si } < 0) map to stable discrete-time signals (|zi | < 1).

Pole locations under sampling:

s-plane Imaginary z-plane Imaginary

ω = π/T

Real 1 Real

ω = -π/T

Roy Smith: ECE 147b 3: 3

Sampling
Sampled pole locations: (in detail)
Imaginary
z-plane N=4
N=5
N=3 ω n = 0.6π/T ζ = 0.1
ω n = 0.7π/T ωn = 0.3π/T
ζ = 0.2
N=8
ζ = 0.3
ωn = 0.8π/T ω n = 0.2π/T

ωn = 0.9π/T N = 20

ζ = 0.9
N=2 ω n = π/T Real

-1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0

Changing the sampling frequency. (recall that zi = esi T . )

Decreasing T : decrease decay rate (r → 1)

decrease oscillation frequency (θ → 0)
poles track constant damping curves towards 1
This is simply because there are more samples taken in the same time period.

Roy Smith: ECE 147b 3: 4

 Sampling
Sample rate effects: zi = esi T , changing T changes the pole positions.
1.2

1.0 Continuous closed-loop system

step response:
0.8
T1 = 0.25 seconds ωn2
T2 = 0.11 seconds G(s) =
0.6 s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2
0.4 ζ = 0.6,

0.2
ωn = 5 rad./sec.,
s1,2 = −3 ± 4i.
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Time [seconds]

Imaginary
z-plane N=4
N=5
N=3 ω n = 0.6π/T ζ = 0.1
ω n = 0.7π/T ωn = 0.3π/T
ζ = 0.2
N=8 Discrete pole positions:
ζ = 0.3
ωn = 0.8π/T ω n = 0.2π/T

Period T1 : z1,2 = 0.255 ± 0.398i

N = 20
Period T2 : z1,2 = 0.650 ± 0.306i
ωn = 0.9π/T

ζ = 0.9
N=2 ω n = π/T Real
-1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0
Roy Smith: ECE 147b 3: 5

Aliasing

Aliasing: What happens to signals of high frequencies (ω > π/T ) ?

As zi = esi T , sinusoids of frequencies from -π/T to π/T radians/second are mapped onto the
unit disk by sampling.
ω1
Consider y(t) = sin ω1 t, which has Laplace transform: y(s) = .
s2 + ω12
Poles are s1,2 = ±jω1 .

Imaginary
z-plane
Sample at period T : y(k) = sin ω1 kT ,
−jω1T
e jωaT = e
z sin w1 T
Z-transform: y(z) = . ωaT
z 2 − 2 cos ω1 T z + 1
Real
±jω1 T -1 1
Poles of y(z) are z1,2 = e .
−ω1T
Slow sampling, T > π/ω1 , implies that ω1 T > π.
The pole angle is greater than π.

Roy Smith: ECE 147b 3: 6

 Aliasing
Having w1 T > π, means that,

e−jω1 T = ej(2π−ω1 T ) , and ejω1 T = e−j(2π−ω1 T ) .

Now, if (2π − ω1 T ) lies in the range 0 to π radians, the pole pattern is identical to that of a
sinusoid of a lower frequency, ωa , where ωa T = 2π − ω1 T.
2π
Equivalently, the apparent frequency is, ωa = − ω1 . (sampling freq: 2π/T rad/sec).
T

Example:

55 Hz Signal: y(t) = cos(2π55t)

Sampling frequency: 1/T = 60 Hz

Then y(k) = cos(2π55t)|t=kT = cos(2π5t)|t=kT

Indistinguishable from a sampled 5 Hz signal!

Roy Smith: ECE 147b 3: 7

Aliasing
Example: 55 Hz signal sampled at 60 Hz

1.5
Original (55 Hz) signal Apparent (5 Hz) signal

0.5

0
0.1 0.2
time
0.5 [seconds]

Sample points
1.5

Roy Smith: ECE 147b 3: 8

 Aliasing
Sampled signals

The unit disk can only represent signals of frequency up to 1/2 the sampling frequency.
(Nyquist frequency).

Sampling operation maps signal poles via: zi = esi T .

Maps the horizontal strip from −jπ/T to jπ/T onto the whole z-plane.

s-plane Imaginary z-plane Imaginary

π/T Mapping via

sampling
-1 1
Real Real
−π/T

And Re {s} < 0 in this strip maps to the inside of the unit disk.

Roy Smith: ECE 147b 3: 9

Aliasing
Aliasing: (ambiguous mapping of higher frequency signals)

Sampling also maps the next strip (from jπ/T to j3π/T ) onto the whole z-plane and adds it
into the result.

Imaginary
3π/T

Mapping via Imaginary

sampling
π/T

-1 1
Real Real
−π/T

s-plane z-plane

Also true for all (infinite) 2π/T wide strips above and below the lowest frequency strip.

Roy Smith: ECE 147b 3: 10

 Aliasing
Consequences of aliasing:

• Ambiguity. Our computer/controller cannot distinguish between frequencies inside the

−π/T to π/T range and those outside of it.
– Controller will respond incorrectly to an aliased signal (e.g. disturbance or error).
– An aliased signal cannot be reconstructed (signal processing).

Amelioration of the problem:

y(k) y(t)
e @
@  F (s)

• Anti-aliasing filter. Low pass, rejecting |ω| > π/T .

– High frequency signals no longer enter loop erroneously.
– High frequency disturbances/errors are “invisible.”
– Filter adds phase lag to the loop. (Potentially destabilizing!)

Roy Smith: ECE 147b 3: 11